Remove legacy files from main source distribution

The AUTHORS file was pretty outdated. Its contents moved onto the
people page. Design paper and roadmaps moved to the projects
directory in svn.

AUTHORS

@@ -1,41 +0,0 @@
-                    This file lists the authors for Tor,
-        a free software project to provide anonymity on the Internet.
-
-       For more information about Tor, see https://www.torproject.org/.
-
-             If you got this file as a part of a larger bundle,
-        there are probably other authors that you should be aware of.
-
-Main authors:
--------------
-
-Roger Dingledine <arma@freehaven.net> overhauled all of the code, did
-a bunch of new design work, etc.
-
-Nick Mathewson <nickm@freehaven.net> wrote lots of stuff too, in
-particular the router and descriptor parsing, and the crypto and tls
-wrappers.
-
-Matej Pfajfar <badbytes@freehaven.net> wrote the first version of the code
-(called OR) in 2001-2002.
-
-Contributors:
--------------
-
-John Bashinski <jbash@velvet.com> contributed the initial rpm spec file.
-
-Christian Grothoff <grothoff@cs.purdue.edu> contributed better daemonizing
-behavior.
-
-Steven Hazel <sah@thalassocracy.org> made 'make install' do the right
-thing.
-
-Jason Holt <jason@lunkwill.org> contributed patches to the instructions
-and the man page.
-
-Peter Palfrader <peter@palfrader.org> maintains everything that's
-debian-specific, and has written other useful features.
-
-Aaron Turner <aturner@netscreen.com> contributed the first version of
-the tor.sh initscripts shell script.
-

ChangeLog

@@ -25,6 +25,10 @@ Changes in version 0.2.2.9-alpha - 2010-??-??
     - Generate our manpage and HTML documentation using Asciidoc.  This
       should make it easier to maintain the documentation, and produce
       nicer HTML.
+    - Removed some unnecessary files from the source distribution. The
+      AUTHORS file had its content merged into the people page on the
+      website. The roadmaps and design doc can now be found in the
+      projects directory in svn.
 
   o Removed features:
     - Stop shipping parts of the website and the design paper in the

contrib/privoxy-tor-toggle

@@ -1,73 +0,0 @@
-#!/bin/sh
-# A script to turn Tor SOCKS4a in Privoxy on or off.
-
-CONFFILE=/etc/privoxy/config            # privoxy config file.
-TOR_REG="forward.*localhost:9050"       # Regular expression to find Tor in privoxy
-PRIVOXY="/etc/init.d/privoxy restart"   # command to reload privoxy config file.
-SED="/bin/sed"                          # sed command, of course.
-GREP="/bin/grep"                        # grep command.
-
-usage () {
-echo "\
-privoxy-tor-toggle: Change Privoxy's configuration to use/not use Tor.
-Usage:
-   privoxy.tor                  <-- Switch Tor on or off.
-   privoxy.tor [on|off]         <-- Set Tor on or off.
-   privoxy.tor status           <-- Display Tor's current status.
-   privoxy.tor [-h|--help|-?]   <-- Print usage.
-"
-}
-
-# Find out the current status of tor. Set $tor_status
-get_status () {
-   gret=`$GREP -l -e "^$TOR_REG"  $CONFFILE`
-   if [ x$gret = x ] ; then
-        tor_status=off;
-   else
-        tor_status=on;
-   fi
-   return
-}
-
-# Turn tor on/off according to $1
-set_tor () {
-   tor_gate=$1
-   get_status
-   if [ $tor_status = $tor_gate ] ; then
-      echo "Tor is already $1."
-      return
-   elif [ $tor_gate = flip ] ; then
-        if [ $tor_status = on ] ; then
-                tor_gate=off
-        elif [ $tor_status = off ] ; then
-                tor_gate=on
-        fi
-   fi
-   echo "Turning Tor $tor_gate..."
-   if [ $tor_gate = on ] ; then
-        reg=s/^#\($TOR_REG\)/\\1/
-        $SED -i.bak -r "$reg"  $CONFFILE
-   else
-        reg=s/^\($TOR_REG\)/#\\1/
-        $SED -i.bak -r "$reg" $CONFFILE
-   fi
-   $PRIVOXY
-   return 0;
-}
-
-if [ x$1 = x ] ; then
-   set_tor flip
-elif [ $1 = on ] ; then
-   set_tor on
-elif [ $1 = off ] ; then
-   set_tor off
-elif [ $1 = status ] ; then
-   get_status
-   echo "Tor is $tor_status"
-elif [ $1 = --help ] || [ $1 = -h ] || [ $1 = "-?" ] ; then
-   usage
-   exit 0
-else
-   echo "Unrecognized option: \"$1\""
-fi
-

contrib/proxy-some-domains

@@ -1,52 +0,0 @@
-Subject:
-Re: Anonymous/Nonymous Communication Coexisting?
-From:
-Kristian Köhntopp <kris@xn--khntopp-90a.de>
-Date:
-Fri, 10 Jun 2005 08:56:19 +0200
-To:
-or-talk@freehaven.net
-
-On Wednesday 08 June 2005 04:20, yancm@sdf.lonestar.org wrote:
-
->> Is it possible to have a single application, such as a web
->> browser or a p2p client behave normally with normal url's but
->> use tor if the url is an xyz.onion address? Or is it
->> everything or nothing?
-
-
-This is basically a question of using your proxy or not. You can 
-control the behaviour of your browser in great detail writing a 
-proxy.pac program in Javascript and setting that program as the 
-proxy autoconfiguration URL in your browser.
-
-An example:
-
-kris@jordan01:~> cat /srv/www/htdocs/proxy.pac
-
-function FindProxyForURL(url, host)
-{
-        var proxy_yes = "PROXY jordan01.int.cinetic.de:3128";
-        var proxy_no  = "DIRECT";
-
-        // Redirect all accesses to mlan hosts to the mlan proxy
-        if (dnsDomainIs(host, ".mlan.cinetic.de")) {
-                return proxy_yes;
-        }
-
-        // Everything else is direct
-        return proxy_no;
-}
-
-So here the program checks if the destination is a mlan-Host, and 
-if so, uses the appropriate proxy on jordan for the access, 
-while all other accesses are direct.
-
-You could do a similar thing with .onion accesses with a trivial 
-modification.
-
-Docs:
-http://wp.netscape.com/eng/mozilla/2.0/relnotes/demo/proxy-live.html
-
-Kristian
-

contrib/tor-0.1.2.17.tar.gz.metalink.in

@@ -1,41 +0,0 @@
-<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
-<metalink version="3.0" generator="Metalink Editor version 1.1.0" xmlns="http://www.metalinker.org/">
-  <publisher>
-    <name>The Tor Project</name>
-    <url>https://www.torproject.org</url>
-  </publisher>
-  <license>
-    <name>BSD</name>
-    <url>http://opensource.org/licenses/bsd-license.php</url>
-  </license>
-  <identity>Tor</identity>
-  <version>@VERSION@</version>
-  <copyright>2007 The Tor Project, Inc.</copyright>
-  <description>Anonymity Online</description>
-  <files>
-    <file name="tor-@VERSION@.tar.gz">
-      <size>1251636</size>
-      <language>en</language>
-      <os>Source</os>
-      <verification>
-        <hash type="md5">ef8fc7f45d167875c337063d437c9832</hash>
-        <hash type="sha1">01092fb75c407b5c1d7f33db069cf7641973d94d</hash>
-        <hash type="sha256">fc0fb0c2891ae09854a69512c6b4988964f2eaf62ce80ed6644cb21f87f6056a</hash>
-        <pieces type="sha1" length="262144">
-          <hash piece="0">c778dd01e05734d57f769082545f9802386e42bb</hash>
-          <hash piece="1">39b172ed8b9290884c7bd129db633a79e28d5ae9</hash>
-          <hash piece="2">28d708e7489a1e9951e757443672535aedfa3abe</hash>
-          <hash piece="3">a7623e07081819a37300de0511bbdda0bdc960bd</hash>
-          <hash piece="4">f246021e55affe320a1f86eac5b049dd0caad828</hash>
-        </pieces>
-      </verification>
-      <resources>
-        <url type="http" location="at">http://tor.cypherpunks.at/dist/</url>
-        <url type="http" location="ca">http://tor.depthstrike.com/dist/</url>
-        <url type="http" location="ca">http://tor.hermetix.org/dist/</url>
-        <url type="http" location="ch">http://tor.boinc.ch/dist/</url>
-        <url type="http" location="cn">http://tor.anonymity.cn/dist/</url>
-      </resources>
-    </file>
-  </files>
-</metalink>

doc/codecon04.mgp

@@ -1,357 +0,0 @@
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%%deffont "standard" xfont "comic sans ms-medium-r"
-%%deffont "thick" xfont "arial black-medium-r"
-%%deffont "typewriter" xfont "courier new-bold-r"
-%%deffont "type2writer" xfont "arial narrow-bold-r"
-%%deffont "standard"   tfont "standard.ttf",   tmfont "kochi-mincho.ttf"
-%%deffont "thick"      tfont "thick.ttf",      tmfont "goth.ttf"
-%%deffont "typewriter" tfont "typewriter.ttf", tmfont "goth.ttf"
-%deffont "standard" xfont "helvetica-medium-r", tfont "arial.ttf", tmfont "times.ttf"
-%deffont "thick" xfont "helvetica-bold-r", tfont "arialbd.ttf", tmfont "hoso6.ttf"
-%deffont "italic" xfont "helvetica-italic-r", tfont "ariali.ttf", tmfont "hoso6.ttf"
-%deffont "typewriter" xfont "courier-medium-r", tfont "typewriter.ttf", tmfont "hoso6.ttf"
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%%
-%% Default settings per each line numbers.
-%%
-%default 1 leftfill, size 8, fore "black", back "white", font "thick", hgap 1
-%default 2 size 8, vgap 10, prefix " ", ccolor "black"
-%default 3 size 6, bar "gray70", vgap 0
-%default 4 size 6, fore "black", vgap 0, prefix " ", font "standard"
-%%
-%%default 1 area 90 90, leftfill, size 9, fore "yellow", back "blue", font "thick"
-%%default 2 size 9, vgap 10, prefix " "
-%%default 3 size 7, bar "gray70", vgap 10
-%%default 4 size 7, vgap 30, prefix " ", font "standard"
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%%
-%% Default settings that are applied to TAB-indented lines.
-%%
-%tab 1 size 5, vgap 40, prefix "     ", icon arc "red" 50
-%tab 2 size 4, vgap 35, prefix "            ", icon delta3 "blue" 40
-%tab 3 size 3, vgap 35, prefix "                        ", icon dia "DarkViolet" 40
-%%
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-%nodefault
-%center, size 9, font "thick", back "white", fore "black"
-
-Tor: 
-%size 8
-Next-generation Onion Routing
-
-
-%size 7
-Roger Dingledine
-Nick Mathewson
-Paul Syverson
-
-The Free Haven Project
-%font "typewriter", fore "blue"
-http://freehaven.net/
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Low-latency anonymity system
-
-%leftfill
-Deployed: 20 nodes, hundreds (?) of users
-
-Many improvements on earlier design
-
-Free software -- modified BSD license
-
-Design is not covered by earlier onion routing
-patent
-
-Uses SOCKS to interface with client apps
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-We have working code
-
-(14 kloc of C)
-
-and a design document,
-and a byte-level specification,
-and a Debian package (in Unstable)
-
-Works on Linux, BSD, OSX, Cygwin, ...
-User-space, doesn't need kernel mods or root
-
-%size 9
-http://freehaven.net/tor/
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%%page
-%%
-%%Talk Overview
-%%
-%%A bit about Onion Routing
-%%
-%%Improvements we've made
-%%
-%%Some related work
-%%
-%%Ask me questions
-%%
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Anonymity: Who needs it?
-
-Private citizens
-	advocacy, counseling, whistleblowing, reporting, ...
-%size 6
-Higher-level protocols
-	voting, e-cash, auctions
-%size 6
-Government applications
-	research, law enforcement
-%size 6
-Business applications
-%size 5
-(hide relationships and volumes of communication)
-	Who is visiting job sites?
-	Which groups are talking to patent lawyers?
-	Who are your suppliers and customers?
-	Is the CEO talking to a buyout partner?
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Anonymity is a network effect
-
-	Systems need traffic (many low-sensitivity users) to attract the high-sensitivity users
-	Most users do not value anonymity much
-	Weak security (fast system) can mean more users
-		which can mean 
-%cont, font "italic"
-stronger 
-%cont, font "standard"
-anonymity
-	High-sensitivity agents have incentive to run nodes
-		so they can be certain first node in their path is good
-		to attract traffic for their messages
-	There can be an optimal level of free-riding
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Onion Routing is...
-
-An overlay network
-
-Users build virtual circuits through the network
-
-One layer of encryption at each hop
-
-Fixed-size cells
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Tor's goals
-
-Conservative design
-	minimize new design work needed
-
-%size 6
-Support testing of future research
-
-Design for deployment; deploy for use
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Threat model -- what we aim for
-
-Protect against somebody watching Alice
-
-Protect against curious Bob
-
-Protect against `some' curious nodes in the middle
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Differences / limitations
-
-
-We're TCP-only, not all IP (but we're user-space and very portable)
-
-Not as strong as high-latency systems (Mixmaster, Mixminion)
-
-Not peer-to-peer
-
-No protocol normalization
-
-Not unobservable (no steg, etc)
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Perfect forward secrecy
-
-
-Telescoping circuit
-
-	negotiates keys at each hop
-	no more need for replay detection
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-No mixing, padding, traffic shaping (yet)
-
-
-Please show us they're worth the usability tradeoff
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%%page
-%%
-%%Many TCP streams can share one circuit
-%%
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Many TCP streams share a circuit
-
-Previous designs built a new circuit for each stream
-
-	lots of public key ops per request
-	plus anonymity dangers from making so many circuits
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Leaky-pipe circuit topology
-
-Alice can direct cells to any node in her circuit
-
-	So we can support long-range padding,
-	have multiple streams exiting at different places in the circuit
-	etc
-
-%size 6
-Unclear whether this is dangerous or useful
-
-More research needed
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Congestion control
-
-
-Simple rate limiting
-
-Plus have to keep internal nodes from overflowing
-
-(Can't use global state or inter-node control)
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Directory servers
-
-To solve the `introduction' problem
-
-Approve new servers
-
-Tell clients who's up right now
-
-	plus their keys, location, etc
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Variable exit policies
-
-
-Each server allows different outgoing connections
-
-E.g. no servers allow outgoing mail currently
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-End-to-end integrity checking
-
-
-In previous onion routing, an insider could change
-the text being transmitted:
-
-"dir" => "rm *"
-
-Even an external adversary could do this!
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Rendezvous points
-
-allow hidden services
-
-don't need (brittle) reply onions
-
-	Access-controlled: Bob can control who he talks to
-	Robust: Bob's service is available even when some Tor nodes go down
-	Smear-resistant: Evil service can't frame a rendezvous router
-	Application-transparent: Don't need to modify Bob's apache
-
-%size 6
-(Not implemented yet)
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-How do we compare security?
-
-Assume adversary owns c of n nodes
-	can choose which
-%size 6
-What's the chance for a random Alice and Bob that he wins?
-
-Freedom, Tor: (c/n)^2
-Peekabooty, six-four, etc: c/n
-Jap (if no padding): 1 if c>1
-Anonymizer: 1 if c>0
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Future work
-
-Threshold directory agreement
-
-Scalability: Morphmix/p2p extensions?
-Restricted-route (non-clique topology)
-
-Non-TCP transport
-
-Implement rendezvous points
-
-Make it work better
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-We have working code
-
-Plus a design document,
-and a byte-level specification
-and a Debian package (in Unstable)
-
-%size 9
-http://freehaven.net/tor/
-
-%size 6
-Privacy Enhancing Technologies workshop
-
-%size 9
-http://petworkshop.org/
-

doc/design-paper/Makefile

@@ -1,21 +0,0 @@
-cell-struct.eps: cell-struct.fig
-	fig2dev -L eps $< $@
-interaction.eps: interaction.fig
-	fig2dev -L eps $< $@
-cell-struct.pdf: cell-struct.fig
-	fig2dev -L pdf $< $@
-interaction.pdf: interaction.fig
-	fig2dev -L pdf $< $@
-
-tor-design.ps: cell-struct.eps interaction.eps tor-design.bib tor-design.tex usenix.sty latex8.bst
-	latex tor-design.tex
-	bibtex tor-design
-	latex tor-design.tex
-	latex tor-design.tex
-	dvips -o $@ tor-design.dvi
-
-tor-design.pdf: cell-struct.pdf interaction.pdf tor-design.bib tor-design.tex usenix.sty latex8.bst
-	pdflatex tor-design.tex
-	bibtex tor-design
-	pdflatex tor-design.tex
-	pdflatex tor-design.tex

doc/design-paper/blocking.html

@@ -1,2112 +0,0 @@
-<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
-           "DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
-<html>
-<meta name="GENERATOR" content="TtH 3.77">
-<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1">
- <style type="text/css"> div.p { margin-top: 7pt;}</style>
- <style type="text/css"><!--
- td div.comp { margin-top: -0.6ex; margin-bottom: -1ex;}
- td div.comb { margin-top: -0.6ex; margin-bottom: -.6ex;}
- td div.hrcomp { line-height: 0.9; margin-top: -0.8ex; margin-bottom: -1ex;}
- td div.norm {line-height:normal;}
- span.roman {font-family: serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;}
- span.overacc2 {position: relative;  left: .8em; top: -1.2ex;}
- span.overacc1 {position: relative;  left: .6em; top: -1.2ex;} --></style>
-
-
-<title> Design of a blocking-resistant anonymity system\DRAFT</title>
-
-<h1 align="center">Design of a blocking-resistant anonymity system<br />DRAFT </h1>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<h3 align="center">Roger Dingledine, Nick Mathewson </h3>
-
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<h2> Abstract</h2>
-Internet censorship is on the rise as websites around the world are
-increasingly blocked by government-level firewalls.  Although popular
-anonymizing networks like Tor were originally designed to keep attackers from
-tracing people's activities, many people are also using them to evade local
-censorship.  But if the censor simply denies access to the Tor network
-itself, blocked users can no longer benefit from the security Tor offers.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Here we describe a design that builds upon the current Tor network
-to provide an anonymizing network that resists blocking
-by government-level attackers.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc1">
-1</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Introduction and Goals</h2>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Anonymizing networks like Tor&nbsp;[<a href="#tor-design" name="CITEtor-design">11</a>] bounce traffic around a
-network of encrypting relays.  Unlike encryption, which hides only <i>what</i>
-is said, these networks also aim to hide who is communicating with whom, which
-users are using which websites, and similar relations.  These systems have a
-broad range of users, including ordinary citizens who want to avoid being
-profiled for targeted advertisements, corporations who don't want to reveal
-information to their competitors, and law enforcement and government
-intelligence agencies who need to do operations on the Internet without being
-noticed.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Historical anonymity research has focused on an
-attacker who monitors the user (call her Alice) and tries to discover her
-activities, yet lets her reach any piece of the network. In more modern
-threat models such as Tor's, the adversary is allowed to perform active
-attacks such as modifying communications to trick Alice
-into revealing her destination, or intercepting some connections
-to run a man-in-the-middle attack. But these systems still assume that
-Alice can eventually reach the anonymizing network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-An increasing number of users are using the Tor software
-less for its anonymity properties than for its censorship
-resistance properties &mdash; if they use Tor to access Internet sites like
-Wikipedia
-and Blogspot, they are no longer affected by local censorship
-and firewall rules. In fact, an informal user study
-showed China as the third largest user base
-for Tor clients, with perhaps ten thousand people accessing the Tor
-network from China each day.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The current Tor design is easy to block if the attacker controls Alice's
-connection to the Tor network &mdash; by blocking the directory authorities,
-by blocking all the server IP addresses in the directory, or by filtering
-based on the fingerprint of the Tor TLS handshake. Here we describe an
-extended design that builds upon the current Tor network to provide an
-anonymizing
-network that resists censorship as well as anonymity-breaking attacks.
-In section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:adversary">2</a> we discuss our threat model &mdash; that is,
-the assumptions we make about our adversary. Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:current-tor">3</a>
-describes the components of the current Tor design and how they can be
-leveraged for a new blocking-resistant design. Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:related">4</a>
-explains the features and drawbacks of the currently deployed solutions.
-In sections&nbsp;<a href="#sec:bridges">5</a> through&nbsp;<a href="#sec:discovery">7</a>, we explore the
-components of our designs in detail.  Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:security">8</a> considers
-security implications and Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:reachability">9</a> presents other
-issues with maintaining connectivity and sustainability for the design.
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:future">10</a> speculates about future more complex designs,
-and finally Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:conclusion">11</a> summarizes our next steps and
-recommendations.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc2">
-<a name="sec:adversary">
-2</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Adversary assumptions</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-To design an effective anti-censorship tool, we need a good model for the
-goals and resources of the censors we are evading.  Otherwise, we risk
-spending our effort on keeping the adversaries from doing things they have no
-interest in doing, and thwarting techniques they do not use.
-The history of blocking-resistance designs is littered with conflicting
-assumptions about what adversaries to expect and what problems are
-in the critical path to a solution. Here we describe our best
-understanding of the current situation around the world.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In the traditional security style, we aim to defeat a strong
-attacker &mdash; if we can defend against this attacker, we inherit protection
-against weaker attackers as well.  After all, we want a general design
-that will work for citizens of China, Thailand, and other censored
-countries; for
-whistleblowers in firewalled corporate networks; and for people in
-unanticipated oppressive situations. In fact, by designing with
-a variety of adversaries in mind, we can take advantage of the fact that
-adversaries will be in different stages of the arms race at each location,
-so a server blocked in one locale can still be useful in others.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We assume that the attackers' goals are somewhat complex.
-
-<dl compact="compact">
-
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>The attacker would like to restrict the flow of certain kinds of
-  information, particularly when this information is seen as embarrassing to
-  those in power (such as information about rights violations or corruption),
-  or when it enables or encourages others to oppose them effectively (such as
-  information about opposition movements or sites that are used to organize
-  protests).</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>As a second-order effect, censors aim to chill citizens' behavior by
-  creating an impression that their online activities are monitored.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>In some cases, censors make a token attempt to block a few sites for
-  obscenity, blasphemy, and so on, but their efforts here are mainly for
-  show. In other cases, they really do try hard to block such content.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Complete blocking (where nobody at all can ever download censored
-  content) is not a
-  goal. Attackers typically recognize that perfect censorship is not only
-  impossible, but unnecessary: if "undesirable" information is known only
-  to a small few, further censoring efforts can be focused elsewhere.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Similarly, the censors are not attempting to shut down or block <i>
-  every</i> anti-censorship tool &mdash; merely the tools that are popular and
-  effective (because these tools impede the censors' information restriction
-  goals) and those tools that are highly visible (thus making the censors
-  look ineffectual to their citizens and their bosses).</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Reprisal against <i>most</i> passive consumers of <i>most</i> kinds of
-  blocked information is also not a goal, given the broadness of most
-  censorship regimes. This seems borne out by fact.<a href="#tthFtNtAAB" name="tthFrefAAB"><sup>1</sup></a></dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Producers and distributors of targeted information are in much
-  greater danger than consumers; the attacker would like to not only block
-  their work, but identify them for reprisal.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>The censors (or their governments) would like to have a working, useful
-  Internet. There are economic, political, and social factors that prevent
-  them from "censoring" the Internet by outlawing it entirely, or by
-  blocking access to all but a tiny list of sites.
-  Nevertheless, the censors <i>are</i> willing to block innocuous content
-  (like the bulk of a newspaper's reporting) in order to censor other content
-  distributed through the same channels (like that newspaper's coverage of
-  the censored country).
-</dd>
-</dl>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We assume there are three main technical network attacks in use by censors
-currently&nbsp;[<a href="#clayton:pet2006" name="CITEclayton:pet2006">7</a>]:
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<dl compact="compact">
-
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Block a destination or type of traffic by automatically searching for
-  certain strings or patterns in TCP packets.  Offending packets can be
-  dropped, or can trigger a response like closing the
-  connection.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Block a destination by listing its IP address at a
-  firewall or other routing control point.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Intercept DNS requests and give bogus responses for certain
-  destination hostnames.
-</dd>
-</dl>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We assume the network firewall has limited CPU and memory per
-connection&nbsp;[<a href="#clayton:pet2006" name="CITEclayton:pet2006">7</a>].  Against an adversary who could carefully
-examine the contents of every packet and correlate the packets in every
-stream on the network, we would need some stronger mechanism such as
-steganography, which introduces its own
-problems&nbsp;[<a href="#active-wardens" name="CITEactive-wardens">15</a>,<a href="#tcpstego" name="CITEtcpstego">26</a>].  But we make a "weak
-steganography" assumption here: to remain unblocked, it is necessary to
-remain unobservable only by computational resources on par with a modern
-router, firewall, proxy, or IDS.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We assume that while various different regimes can coordinate and share
-notes, there will be a time lag between one attacker learning how to overcome
-a facet of our design and other attackers picking it up.  (The most common
-vector of transmission seems to be commercial providers of censorship tools:
-once a provider adds a feature to meet one country's needs or requests, the
-feature is available to all of the provider's customers.)  Conversely, we
-assume that insider attacks become a higher risk only after the early stages
-of network development, once the system has reached a certain level of
-success and visibility.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We do not assume that government-level attackers are always uniform
-across the country. For example, users of different ISPs in China
-experience different censorship policies and mechanisms.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We assume that the attacker may be able to use political and economic
-resources to secure the cooperation of extraterritorial or multinational
-corporations and entities in investigating information sources.
-For example, the censors can threaten the service providers of
-troublesome blogs with economic reprisals if they do not reveal the
-authors' identities.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We assume that our users have control over their hardware and
-software &mdash; they don't have any spyware installed, there are no
-cameras watching their screens, etc. Unfortunately, in many situations
-these threats are real&nbsp;[<a href="#zuckerman-threatmodels" name="CITEzuckerman-threatmodels">28</a>]; yet
-software-based security systems like ours are poorly equipped to handle
-a user who is entirely observed and controlled by the adversary. See
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:cafes-and-livecds">8.4</a> for more discussion of what little
-we can do about this issue.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Similarly, we assume that the user will be able to fetch a genuine
-version of Tor, rather than one supplied by the adversary; see
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:trust-chain">8.5</a> for discussion on helping the user
-confirm that he has a genuine version and that he can connect to the
-real Tor network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc3">
-<a name="sec:current-tor">
-3</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Adapting the current Tor design to anti-censorship</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Tor is popular and sees a lot of use &mdash; it's the largest anonymity
-network of its kind, and has
-attracted more than 800 volunteer-operated routers from around the
-world.  Tor protects each user by routing their traffic through a multiply
-encrypted "circuit" built of a few randomly selected servers, each of which
-can remove only a single layer of encryption.  Each server sees only the step
-before it and the step after it in the circuit, and so no single server can
-learn the connection between a user and her chosen communication partners.
-In this section, we examine some of the reasons why Tor has become popular,
-with particular emphasis to how we can take advantage of these properties
-for a blocking-resistance design.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Tor aims to provide three security properties:
-
-<dl compact="compact">
-
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd>1. A local network attacker can't learn, or influence, your
-destination.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd>2. No single router in the Tor network can link you to your
-destination.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd>3. The destination, or somebody watching the destination,
-can't learn your location.
-</dd>
-</dl>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-For blocking-resistance, we care most clearly about the first
-property. But as the arms race progresses, the second property
-will become important &mdash; for example, to discourage an adversary
-from volunteering a relay in order to learn that Alice is reading
-or posting to certain websites. The third property helps keep users safe from
-collaborating websites: consider websites and other Internet services
-that have been pressured
-recently into revealing the identity of bloggers
-or treating clients differently depending on their network
-location&nbsp;[<a href="#goodell-syverson06" name="CITEgoodell-syverson06">17</a>].
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The Tor design provides other features as well that are not typically
-present in manual or ad hoc circumvention techniques.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-First, Tor has a well-analyzed and well-understood way to distribute
-information about servers.
-Tor directory authorities automatically aggregate, test,
-and publish signed summaries of the available Tor routers. Tor clients
-can fetch these summaries to learn which routers are available and
-which routers are suitable for their needs. Directory information is cached
-throughout the Tor network, so once clients have bootstrapped they never
-need to interact with the authorities directly. (To tolerate a minority
-of compromised directory authorities, we use a threshold trust scheme &mdash;
-see Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:trust-chain">8.5</a> for details.)
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Second, the list of directory authorities is not hard-wired.
-Clients use the default authorities if no others are specified,
-but it's easy to start a separate (or even overlapping) Tor network just
-by running a different set of authorities and convincing users to prefer
-a modified client. For example, we could launch a distinct Tor network
-inside China; some users could even use an aggregate network made up of
-both the main network and the China network. (But we should not be too
-quick to create other Tor networks &mdash; part of Tor's anonymity comes from
-users behaving like other users, and there are many unsolved anonymity
-questions if different users know about different pieces of the network.)
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Third, in addition to automatically learning from the chosen directories
-which Tor routers are available and working, Tor takes care of building
-paths through the network and rebuilding them as needed. So the user
-never has to know how paths are chosen, never has to manually pick
-working proxies, and so on. More generally, at its core the Tor protocol
-is simply a tool that can build paths given a set of routers. Tor is
-quite flexible about how it learns about the routers and how it chooses
-the paths. Harvard's Blossom project&nbsp;[<a href="#blossom-thesis" name="CITEblossom-thesis">16</a>] makes this
-flexibility more concrete: Blossom makes use of Tor not for its security
-properties but for its reachability properties. It runs a separate set
-of directory authorities, its own set of Tor routers (called the Blossom
-network), and uses Tor's flexible path-building to let users view Internet
-resources from any point in the Blossom network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Fourth, Tor separates the role of <em>internal relay</em> from the
-role of <em>exit relay</em>. That is, some volunteers choose just to relay
-traffic between Tor users and Tor routers, and others choose to also allow
-connections to external Internet resources. Because we don't force all
-volunteers to play both roles, we end up with more relays. This increased
-diversity in turn is what gives Tor its security: the more options the
-user has for her first hop, and the more options she has for her last hop,
-the less likely it is that a given attacker will be watching both ends
-of her circuit&nbsp;[<a href="#tor-design" name="CITEtor-design">11</a>]. As a bonus, because our design attracts
-more internal relays that want to help out but don't want to deal with
-being an exit relay, we end up providing more options for the first
-hop &mdash; the one most critical to being able to reach the Tor network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Fifth, Tor is sustainable. Zero-Knowledge Systems offered the commercial
-but now defunct Freedom Network&nbsp;[<a href="#freedom21-security" name="CITEfreedom21-security">2</a>], a design with
-security comparable to Tor's, but its funding model relied on collecting
-money from users to pay relay operators. Modern commercial proxy systems
-similarly
-need to keep collecting money to support their infrastructure. On the
-other hand, Tor has built a self-sustaining community of volunteers who
-donate their time and resources. This community trust is rooted in Tor's
-open design: we tell the world exactly how Tor works, and we provide all
-the source code. Users can decide for themselves, or pay any security
-expert to decide, whether it is safe to use. Further, Tor's modularity
-as described above, along with its open license, mean that its impact
-will continue to grow.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Sixth, Tor has an established user base of hundreds of
-thousands of people from around the world. This diversity of
-users contributes to sustainability as above: Tor is used by
-ordinary citizens, activists, corporations, law enforcement, and
-even government and military users,
-and they can
-only achieve their security goals by blending together in the same
-network&nbsp;[<a href="#econymics" name="CITEeconymics">1</a>,<a href="#usability:weis2006" name="CITEusability:weis2006">9</a>]. This user base also provides
-something else: hundreds of thousands of different and often-changing
-addresses that we can leverage for our blocking-resistance design.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Finally and perhaps most importantly, Tor provides anonymity and prevents any
-single server from linking users to their communication partners.  Despite
-initial appearances, <i>distributed-trust anonymity is critical for
-anti-censorship efforts</i>.  If any single server can expose dissident bloggers
-or compile a list of users' behavior, the censors can profitably compromise
-that server's operator, perhaps by  applying economic pressure to their
-employers,
-breaking into their computer, pressuring their family (if they have relatives
-in the censored area), or so on.  Furthermore, in designs where any relay can
-expose its users, the censors can spread suspicion that they are running some
-of the relays and use this belief to chill use of the network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We discuss and adapt these components further in
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:bridges">5</a>. But first we examine the strengths and
-weaknesses of other blocking-resistance approaches, so we can expand
-our repertoire of building blocks and ideas.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc4">
-<a name="sec:related">
-4</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Current proxy solutions</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Relay-based blocking-resistance schemes generally have two main
-components: a relay component and a discovery component. The relay part
-encompasses the process of establishing a connection, sending traffic
-back and forth, and so on &mdash; everything that's done once the user knows
-where she's going to connect. Discovery is the step before that: the
-process of finding one or more usable relays.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-For example, we can divide the pieces of Tor in the previous section
-into the process of building paths and sending
-traffic over them (relay) and the process of learning from the directory
-servers about what routers are available (discovery).  With this distinction
-in mind, we now examine several categories of relay-based schemes.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.1">
-4.1</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Centrally-controlled shared proxies</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Existing commercial anonymity solutions (like Anonymizer.com) are based
-on a set of single-hop proxies. In these systems, each user connects to
-a single proxy, which then relays traffic between the user and her
-destination. These public proxy
-systems are typically characterized by two features: they control and
-operate the proxies centrally, and many different users get assigned
-to each proxy.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In terms of the relay component, single proxies provide weak security
-compared to systems that distribute trust over multiple relays, since a
-compromised proxy can trivially observe all of its users' actions, and
-an eavesdropper only needs to watch a single proxy to perform timing
-correlation attacks against all its users' traffic and thus learn where
-everyone is connecting. Worse, all users
-need to trust the proxy company to have good security itself as well as
-to not reveal user activities.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-On the other hand, single-hop proxies are easier to deploy, and they
-can provide better performance than distributed-trust designs like Tor,
-since traffic only goes through one relay. They're also more convenient
-from the user's perspective &mdash; since users entirely trust the proxy,
-they can just use their web browser directly.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Whether public proxy schemes are more or less scalable than Tor is
-still up for debate: commercial anonymity systems can use some of their
-revenue to provision more bandwidth as they grow, whereas volunteer-based
-anonymity systems can attract thousands of fast relays to spread the load.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The discovery piece can take several forms. Most commercial anonymous
-proxies have one or a handful of commonly known websites, and their users
-log in to those websites and relay their traffic through them. When
-these websites get blocked (generally soon after the company becomes
-popular), if the company cares about users in the blocked areas, they
-start renting lots of disparate IP addresses and rotating through them
-as they get blocked. They notify their users of new addresses (by email,
-for example). It's an arms race, since attackers can sign up to receive the
-email too, but operators have one nice trick available to them: because they
-have a list of paying subscribers, they can notify certain subscribers
-about updates earlier than others.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Access control systems on the proxy let them provide service only to
-users with certain characteristics, such as paying customers or people
-from certain IP address ranges.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Discovery in the face of a government-level firewall is a complex and
-unsolved
-topic, and we're stuck in this same arms race ourselves; we explore it
-in more detail in Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:discovery">7</a>. But first we examine the
-other end of the spectrum &mdash; getting volunteers to run the proxies,
-and telling only a few people about each proxy.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.2">
-4.2</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Independent personal proxies</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Personal proxies such as Circumventor&nbsp;[<a href="#circumventor" name="CITEcircumventor">18</a>] and
-CGIProxy&nbsp;[<a href="#cgiproxy" name="CITEcgiproxy">23</a>] use the same technology as the public ones as
-far as the relay component goes, but they use a different strategy for
-discovery. Rather than managing a few centralized proxies and constantly
-getting new addresses for them as the old addresses are blocked, they
-aim to have a large number of entirely independent proxies, each managing
-its own (much smaller) set of users.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-As the Circumventor site explains, "You don't
-actually install the Circumventor <em>on</em> the computer that is blocked
-from accessing Web sites. You, or a friend of yours, has to install the
-Circumventor on some <em>other</em> machine which is not censored."
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-This tactic has great advantages in terms of blocking-resistance &mdash; recall
-our assumption in Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:adversary">2</a> that the attention
-a system attracts from the attacker is proportional to its number of
-users and level of publicity. If each proxy only has a few users, and
-there is no central list of proxies, most of them will never get noticed by
-the censors.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-On the other hand, there's a huge scalability question that so far has
-prevented these schemes from being widely useful: how does the fellow
-in China find a person in Ohio who will run a Circumventor for him? In
-some cases he may know and trust some people on the outside, but in many
-cases he's just out of luck. Just as hard, how does a new volunteer in
-Ohio find a person in China who needs it?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-This challenge leads to a hybrid design-centrally &mdash; distributed
-personal proxies &mdash; which we will investigate in more detail in
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:discovery">7</a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.3">
-4.3</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Open proxies</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Yet another currently used approach to bypassing firewalls is to locate
-open and misconfigured proxies on the Internet. A quick Google search
-for "open proxy list" yields a wide variety of freely available lists
-of HTTP, HTTPS, and SOCKS proxies. Many small companies have sprung up
-providing more refined lists to paying customers.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-There are some downsides to using these open proxies though. First,
-the proxies are of widely varying quality in terms of bandwidth and
-stability, and many of them are entirely unreachable. Second, unlike
-networks of volunteers like Tor, the legality of routing traffic through
-these proxies is questionable: it's widely believed that most of them
-don't realize what they're offering, and probably wouldn't allow it if
-they realized. Third, in many cases the connection to the proxy is
-unencrypted, so firewalls that filter based on keywords in IP packets
-will not be hindered. Fourth, in many countries (including China), the
-firewall authorities hunt for open proxies as well, to preemptively
-block them. And last, many users are suspicious that some
-open proxies are a little <em>too</em> convenient: are they run by the
-adversary, in which case they get to monitor all the user's requests
-just as single-hop proxies can?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-A distributed-trust design like Tor resolves each of these issues for
-the relay component, but a constantly changing set of thousands of open
-relays is clearly a useful idea for a discovery component. For example,
-users might be able to make use of these proxies to bootstrap their
-first introduction into the Tor network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.4">
-4.4</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Blocking resistance and JAP</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-K&#246;psell and Hilling's Blocking Resistance
-design&nbsp;[<a href="#koepsell:wpes2004" name="CITEkoepsell:wpes2004">20</a>] is probably
-the closest related work, and is the starting point for the design in this
-paper.  In this design, the JAP anonymity system&nbsp;[<a href="#web-mix" name="CITEweb-mix">3</a>] is used
-as a base instead of Tor.  Volunteers operate a large number of access
-points that relay traffic to the core JAP
-network, which in turn anonymizes users' traffic.  The software to run these
-relays is, as in our design, included in the JAP client software and enabled
-only when the user decides to enable it.  Discovery is handled with a
-CAPTCHA-based mechanism; users prove that they aren't an automated process,
-and are given the address of an access point.  (The problem of a determined
-attacker with enough manpower to launch many requests and enumerate all the
-access points is not considered in depth.)  There is also some suggestion
-that information about access points could spread through existing social
-networks.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.5">
-4.5</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Infranet</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The Infranet design&nbsp;[<a href="#infranet" name="CITEinfranet">14</a>] uses one-hop relays to deliver web
-content, but disguises its communications as ordinary HTTP traffic.  Requests
-are split into multiple requests for URLs on the relay, which then encodes
-its responses in the content it returns.  The relay needs to be an actual
-website with plausible content and a number of URLs which the user might want
-to access &mdash; if the Infranet software produced its own cover content, it would
-be far easier for censors to identify.  To keep the censors from noticing
-that cover content changes depending on what data is embedded, Infranet needs
-the cover content to have an innocuous reason for changing frequently: the
-paper recommends watermarked images and webcams.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The attacker and relay operators in Infranet's threat model are significantly
-different than in ours.  Unlike our attacker, Infranet's censor can't be
-bypassed with encrypted traffic (presumably because the censor blocks
-encrypted traffic, or at least considers it suspicious), and has more
-computational resources to devote to each connection than ours (so it can
-notice subtle patterns over time).  Unlike our bridge operators, Infranet's
-operators (and users) have more bandwidth to spare; the overhead in typical
-steganography schemes is far higher than Tor's.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The Infranet design does not include a discovery element.  Discovery,
-however, is a critical point: if whatever mechanism allows users to learn
-about relays also allows the censor to do so, he can trivially discover and
-block their addresses, even if the steganography would prevent mere traffic
-observation from revealing the relays' addresses.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.6">
-4.6</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;RST-evasion and other packet-level tricks</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In their analysis of China's firewall's content-based blocking, Clayton,
-Murdoch and Watson discovered that rather than blocking all packets in a TCP
-streams once a forbidden word was noticed, the firewall was simply forging
-RST packets to make the communicating parties believe that the connection was
-closed&nbsp;[<a href="#clayton:pet2006" name="CITEclayton:pet2006">7</a>]. They proposed altering operating systems
-to ignore forged RST packets. This approach might work in some cases, but
-in practice it appears that many firewalls start filtering by IP address
-once a sufficient number of RST packets have been sent.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Other packet-level responses to filtering include splitting
-sensitive words across multiple TCP packets, so that the censors'
-firewalls can't notice them without performing expensive stream
-reconstruction&nbsp;[<a href="#ptacek98insertion" name="CITEptacek98insertion">27</a>]. This technique relies on the
-same insight as our weak steganography assumption.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.7">
-4.7</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Internal caching networks</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Freenet&nbsp;[<a href="#freenet-pets00" name="CITEfreenet-pets00">6</a>] is an anonymous peer-to-peer data store.
-Analyzing Freenet's security can be difficult, as its design is in flux as
-new discovery and routing mechanisms are proposed, and no complete
-specification has (to our knowledge) been written.  Freenet servers relay
-requests for specific content (indexed by a digest of the content)
-"toward" the server that hosts it, and then cache the content as it
-follows the same path back to
-the requesting user.  If Freenet's routing mechanism is successful in
-allowing nodes to learn about each other and route correctly even as some
-node-to-node links are blocked by firewalls, then users inside censored areas
-can ask a local Freenet server for a piece of content, and get an answer
-without having to connect out of the country at all.  Of course, operators of
-servers inside the censored area can still be targeted, and the addresses of
-external servers can still be blocked.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.8">
-4.8</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Skype</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The popular Skype voice-over-IP software uses multiple techniques to tolerate
-restrictive networks, some of which allow it to continue operating in the
-presence of censorship.  By switching ports and using encryption, Skype
-attempts to resist trivial blocking and content filtering.  Even if no
-encryption were used, it would still be expensive to scan all voice
-traffic for sensitive words.  Also, most current keyloggers are unable to
-store voice traffic.  Nevertheless, Skype can still be blocked, especially at
-its central login server.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.9">
-4.9</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Tor itself</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-And last, we include Tor itself in the list of current solutions
-to firewalls. Tens of thousands of people use Tor from countries that
-routinely filter their Internet. Tor's website has been blocked in most
-of them. But why hasn't the Tor network been blocked yet?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We have several theories. The first is the most straightforward: tens of
-thousands of people are simply too few to matter. It may help that Tor is
-perceived to be for experts only, and thus not worth attention yet. The
-more subtle variant on this theory is that we've positioned Tor in the
-public eye as a tool for retaining civil liberties in more free countries,
-so perhaps blocking authorities don't view it as a threat. (We revisit
-this idea when we consider whether and how to publicize a Tor variant
-that improves blocking-resistance &mdash; see Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:publicity">9.5</a>
-for more discussion.)
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The broader explanation is that the maintenance of most government-level
-filters is aimed at stopping widespread information flow and appearing to be
-in control, not by the impossible goal of blocking all possible ways to bypass
-censorship. Censors realize that there will always
-be ways for a few people to get around the firewall, and as long as Tor
-has not publically threatened their control, they see no urgent need to
-block it yet.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We should recognize that we're <em>already</em> in the arms race. These
-constraints can give us insight into the priorities and capabilities of
-our various attackers.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc5">
-<a name="sec:bridges">
-5</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;The relay component of our blocking-resistant design</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:current-tor">3</a> describes many reasons why Tor is
-well-suited as a building block in our context, but several changes will
-allow the design to resist blocking better. The most critical changes are
-to get more relay addresses, and to distribute them to users differently.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc5.1">
-5.1</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Bridge relays</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Today, Tor servers operate on less than a thousand distinct IP addresses;
-an adversary
-could enumerate and block them all with little trouble.  To provide a
-means of ingress to the network, we need a larger set of entry points, most
-of which an adversary won't be able to enumerate easily.  Fortunately, we
-have such a set: the Tor users.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Hundreds of thousands of people around the world use Tor. We can leverage
-our already self-selected user base to produce a list of thousands of
-frequently-changing IP addresses. Specifically, we can give them a little
-button in the GUI that says "Tor for Freedom", and users who click
-the button will turn into <em>bridge relays</em> (or just <em>bridges</em>
-for short). They can rate limit relayed connections to 10 KB/s (almost
-nothing for a broadband user in a free country, but plenty for a user
-who otherwise has no access at all), and since they are just relaying
-bytes back and forth between blocked users and the main Tor network, they
-won't need to make any external connections to Internet sites. Because
-of this separation of roles, and because we're making use of software
-that the volunteers have already installed for their own use, we expect
-our scheme to attract and maintain more volunteers than previous schemes.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-As usual, there are new anonymity and security implications from running a
-bridge relay, particularly from letting people relay traffic through your
-Tor client; but we leave this discussion for Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:security">8</a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc5.2">
-5.2</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;The bridge directory authority</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-How do the bridge relays advertise their existence to the world? We
-introduce a second new component of the design: a specialized directory
-authority that aggregates and tracks bridges. Bridge relays periodically
-publish server descriptors (summaries of their keys, locations, etc,
-signed by their long-term identity key), just like the relays in the
-"main" Tor network, but in this case they publish them only to the
-bridge directory authorities.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The main difference between bridge authorities and the directory
-authorities for the main Tor network is that the main authorities provide
-a list of every known relay, but the bridge authorities only give
-out a server descriptor if you already know its identity key. That is,
-you can keep up-to-date on a bridge's location and other information
-once you know about it, but you can't just grab a list of all the bridges.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The identity key, IP address, and directory port for each bridge
-authority ship by default with the Tor software, so the bridge relays
-can be confident they're publishing to the right location, and the
-blocked users can establish an encrypted authenticated channel. See
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:trust-chain">8.5</a> for more discussion of the public key
-infrastructure and trust chain.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Bridges use Tor to publish their descriptors privately and securely,
-so even an attacker monitoring the bridge directory authority's network
-can't make a list of all the addresses contacting the authority.
-Bridges may publish to only a subset of the
-authorities, to limit the potential impact of an authority compromise.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc5.3">
-<a name="subsec:relay-together">
-5.3</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Putting them together</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-If a blocked user knows the identity keys of a set of bridge relays, and
-he has correct address information for at least one of them, he can use
-that one to make a secure connection to the bridge authority and update
-his knowledge about the other bridge relays. He can also use it to make
-secure connections to the main Tor network and directory servers, so he
-can build circuits and connect to the rest of the Internet. All of these
-updates happen in the background: from the blocked user's perspective,
-he just accesses the Internet via his Tor client like always.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-So now we've reduced the problem from how to circumvent the firewall
-for all transactions (and how to know that the pages you get have not
-been modified by the local attacker) to how to learn about a working
-bridge relay.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-There's another catch though. We need to make sure that the network
-traffic we generate by simply connecting to a bridge relay doesn't stand
-out too much.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc6">
-<a name="sec:network-fingerprint">
-<a name="subsec:enclave-dirs">
-6</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Hiding Tor's network fingerprint</h2>
-</a>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Currently, Tor uses two protocols for its network communications. The
-main protocol uses TLS for encrypted and authenticated communication
-between Tor instances. The second protocol is standard HTTP, used for
-fetching directory information. All Tor servers listen on their "ORPort"
-for TLS connections, and some of them opt to listen on their "DirPort"
-as well, to serve directory information. Tor servers choose whatever port
-numbers they like; the server descriptor they publish to the directory
-tells users where to connect.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-One format for communicating address information about a bridge relay is
-its IP address and DirPort. From there, the user can ask the bridge's
-directory cache for an up-to-date copy of its server descriptor, and
-learn its current circuit keys, its ORPort, and so on.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-However, connecting directly to the directory cache involves a plaintext
-HTTP request. A censor could create a network fingerprint (known as a
-<em>signature</em> in the intrusion detection field) for the request
-and/or its response, thus preventing these connections. To resolve this
-vulnerability, we've modified the Tor protocol so that users can connect
-to the directory cache via the main Tor port &mdash; they establish a TLS
-connection with the bridge as normal, and then send a special "begindir"
-relay command to establish an internal connection to its directory cache.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Therefore a better way to summarize a bridge's address is by its IP
-address and ORPort, so all communications between the client and the
-bridge will use ordinary TLS. But there are other details that need
-more investigation.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-What port should bridges pick for their ORPort? We currently recommend
-that they listen on port 443 (the default HTTPS port) if they want to
-be most useful, because clients behind standard firewalls will have
-the best chance to reach them. Is this the best choice in all cases,
-or should we encourage some fraction of them pick random ports, or other
-ports commonly permitted through firewalls like 53 (DNS) or 110
-(POP)?  Or perhaps we should use other ports where TLS traffic is
-expected, like 993 (IMAPS) or 995 (POP3S).  We need more research on our
-potential users, and their current and anticipated firewall restrictions.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Furthermore, we need to look at the specifics of Tor's TLS handshake.
-Right now Tor uses some predictable strings in its TLS handshakes. For
-example, it sets the X.509 organizationName field to "Tor", and it puts
-the Tor server's nickname in the certificate's commonName field. We
-should tweak the handshake protocol so it doesn't rely on any unusual details
-in the certificate, yet it remains secure; the certificate itself
-should be made to resemble an ordinary HTTPS certificate.  We should also try
-to make our advertised cipher-suites closer to what an ordinary web server
-would support.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Tor's TLS handshake uses two-certificate chains: one certificate
-contains the self-signed identity key for
-the router, and the second contains a current TLS key, signed by the
-identity key. We use these to authenticate that we're talking to the right
-router, and to limit the impact of TLS-key exposure.  Most (though far from
-all) consumer-oriented HTTPS services provide only a single certificate.
-These extra certificates may help identify Tor's TLS handshake; instead,
-bridges should consider using only a single TLS key certificate signed by
-their identity key, and providing the full value of the identity key in an
-early handshake cell.  More significantly, Tor currently has all clients
-present certificates, so that clients are harder to distinguish from servers.
-But in a blocking-resistance environment, clients should not present
-certificates at all.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Last, what if the adversary starts observing the network traffic even
-more closely? Even if our TLS handshake looks innocent, our traffic timing
-and volume still look different than a user making a secure web connection
-to his bank. The same techniques used in the growing trend to build tools
-to recognize encrypted Bittorrent traffic
-could be used to identify Tor communication and recognize bridge
-relays. Rather than trying to look like encrypted web traffic, we may be
-better off trying to blend with some other encrypted network protocol. The
-first step is to compare typical network behavior for a Tor client to
-typical network behavior for various other protocols. This statistical
-cat-and-mouse game is made more complex by the fact that Tor transports a
-variety of protocols, and we'll want to automatically handle web browsing
-differently from, say, instant messaging.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc6.1">
-<a name="subsec:id-address">
-6.1</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Identity keys as part of addressing information</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We have described a way for the blocked user to bootstrap into the
-network once he knows the IP address and ORPort of a bridge. What about
-local spoofing attacks? That is, since we never learned an identity
-key fingerprint for the bridge, a local attacker could intercept our
-connection and pretend to be the bridge we had in mind. It turns out
-that giving false information isn't that bad &mdash; since the Tor client
-ships with trusted keys for the bridge directory authority and the Tor
-network directory authorities, the user can learn whether he's being
-given a real connection to the bridge authorities or not. (After all,
-if the adversary intercepts every connection the user makes and gives
-him a bad connection each time, there's nothing we can do.)
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-What about anonymity-breaking attacks from observing traffic, if the
-blocked user doesn't start out knowing the identity key of his intended
-bridge? The vulnerabilities aren't so bad in this case either &mdash; the
-adversary could do similar attacks just by monitoring the network
-traffic.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Once the Tor client has fetched the bridge's server descriptor, it should
-remember the identity key fingerprint for that bridge relay. Thus if
-the bridge relay moves to a new IP address, the client can query the
-bridge directory authority to look up a fresh server descriptor using
-this fingerprint.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-So we've shown that it's <em>possible</em> to bootstrap into the network
-just by learning the IP address and ORPort of a bridge, but are there
-situations where it's more convenient or more secure to learn the bridge's
-identity fingerprint as well as instead, while bootstrapping? We keep
-that question in mind as we next investigate bootstrapping and discovery.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc7">
-<a name="sec:discovery">
-7</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Discovering working bridge relays</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Tor's modular design means that we can develop a better relay component
-independently of developing the discovery component. This modularity's
-great promise is that we can pick any discovery approach we like; but the
-unfortunate fact is that we have no magic bullet for discovery. We're
-in the same arms race as all the other designs we described in
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:related">4</a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In this section we describe a variety of approaches to adding discovery
-components for our design.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc7.1">
-<a name="subsec:first-bridge">
-7.1</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Bootstrapping: finding your first bridge.</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:relay-together">5.3</a>, we showed that a user who knows
-a working bridge address can use it to reach the bridge authority and
-to stay connected to the Tor network. But how do new users reach the
-bridge authority in the first place? After all, the bridge authority
-will be one of the first addresses that a censor blocks.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-First, we should recognize that most government firewalls are not
-perfect. That is, they may allow connections to Google cache or some
-open proxy servers, or they let file-sharing traffic, Skype, instant
-messaging, or World-of-Warcraft connections through. Different users will
-have different mechanisms for bypassing the firewall initially. Second,
-we should remember that most people don't operate in a vacuum; users will
-hopefully know other people who are in other situations or have other
-resources available. In the rest of this section we develop a toolkit
-of different options and mechanisms, so that we can enable users in a
-diverse set of contexts to bootstrap into the system.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-(For users who can't use any of these techniques, hopefully they know
-a friend who can &mdash; for example, perhaps the friend already knows some
-bridge relay addresses. If they can't get around it at all, then we
-can't help them &mdash; they should go meet more people or learn more about
-the technology running the firewall in their area.)
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-By deploying all the schemes in the toolkit at once, we let bridges and
-blocked users employ the discovery approach that is most appropriate
-for their situation.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc7.2">
-7.2</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Independent bridges, no central discovery</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The first design is simply to have no centralized discovery component at
-all. Volunteers run bridges, and we assume they have some blocked users
-in mind and communicate their address information to them out-of-band
-(for example, through Gmail). This design allows for small personal
-bridges that have only one or a handful of users in mind, but it can
-also support an entire community of users. For example, Citizen Lab's
-upcoming Psiphon single-hop proxy tool&nbsp;[<a href="#psiphon" name="CITEpsiphon">13</a>] plans to use this
-<em>social network</em> approach as its discovery component.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-There are several ways to do bootstrapping in this design. In the simple
-case, the operator of the bridge informs each chosen user about his
-bridge's address information and/or keys. A different approach involves
-blocked users introducing new blocked users to the bridges they know.
-That is, somebody in the blocked area can pass along a bridge's address to
-somebody else they trust. This scheme brings in appealing but complex game
-theoretic properties: the blocked user making the decision has an incentive
-only to delegate to trustworthy people, since an adversary who learns
-the bridge's address and filters it makes it unavailable for both of them.
-Also, delegating known bridges to members of your social network can be
-dangerous: an the adversary who can learn who knows which bridges may
-be able to reconstruct the social network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Note that a central set of bridge directory authorities can still be
-compatible with a decentralized discovery process. That is, how users
-first learn about bridges is entirely up to the bridges, but the process
-of fetching up-to-date descriptors for them can still proceed as described
-in Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:bridges">5</a>. Of course, creating a central place that
-knows about all the bridges may not be smart, especially if every other
-piece of the system is decentralized. Further, if a user only knows
-about one bridge and he loses track of it, it may be quite a hassle to
-reach the bridge authority. We address these concerns next.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc7.3">
-7.3</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Families of bridges, no central discovery</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Because the blocked users are running our software too, we have many
-opportunities to improve usability or robustness. Our second design builds
-on the first by encouraging volunteers to run several bridges at once
-(or coordinate with other bridge volunteers), such that some
-of the bridges are likely to be available at any given time.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The blocked user's Tor client would periodically fetch an updated set of
-recommended bridges from any of the working bridges. Now the client can
-learn new additions to the bridge pool, and can expire abandoned bridges
-or bridges that the adversary has blocked, without the user ever needing
-to care. To simplify maintenance of the community's bridge pool, each
-community could run its own bridge directory authority &mdash; reachable via
-the available bridges, and also mirrored at each bridge.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc7.4">
-7.4</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Public bridges with central discovery</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-What about people who want to volunteer as bridges but don't know any
-suitable blocked users? What about people who are blocked but don't
-know anybody on the outside? Here we describe how to make use of these
-<em>public bridges</em> in a way that still makes it hard for the attacker
-to learn all of them.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The basic idea is to divide public bridges into a set of pools based on
-identity key. Each pool corresponds to a <em>distribution strategy</em>:
-an approach to distributing its bridge addresses to users. Each strategy
-is designed to exercise a different scarce resource or property of
-the user.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-How do we divide bridges between these strategy pools such that they're
-evenly distributed and the allocation is hard to influence or predict,
-but also in a way that's amenable to creating more strategies later
-on without reshuffling all the pools? We assign a given bridge
-to a strategy pool by hashing the bridge's identity key along with a
-secret that only the bridge authority knows: the first n bits of this
-hash dictate the strategy pool number, where n is a parameter that
-describes how many strategy pools we want at this point. We choose n=3
-to start, so we divide bridges between 8 pools; but as we later invent
-new distribution strategies, we can increment n to split the 8 into
-16. Since a bridge can't predict the next bit in its hash, it can't
-anticipate which identity key will correspond to a certain new pool
-when the pools are split. Further, since the bridge authority doesn't
-provide any feedback to the bridge about which strategy pool it's in,
-an adversary who signs up bridges with the goal of filling a certain
-pool&nbsp;[<a href="#casc-rep" name="CITEcasc-rep">12</a>] will be hindered.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The first distribution strategy (used for the first pool) publishes bridge
-addresses in a time-release fashion. The bridge authority divides the
-available bridges into partitions, and each partition is deterministically
-available only in certain time windows. That is, over the course of a
-given time slot (say, an hour), each requester is given a random bridge
-from within that partition. When the next time slot arrives, a new set
-of bridges from the pool are available for discovery. Thus some bridge
-address is always available when a new
-user arrives, but to learn about all bridges the attacker needs to fetch
-all new addresses at every new time slot. By varying the length of the
-time slots, we can make it harder for the attacker to guess when to check
-back. We expect these bridges will be the first to be blocked, but they'll
-help the system bootstrap until they <em>do</em> get blocked. Further,
-remember that we're dealing with different blocking regimes around the
-world that will progress at different rates &mdash; so this pool will still
-be useful to some users even as the arms races progress.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The second distribution strategy publishes bridge addresses based on the IP
-address of the requesting user. Specifically, the bridge authority will
-divide the available bridges in the pool into a bunch of partitions
-(as in the first distribution scheme), hash the requester's IP address
-with a secret of its own (as in the above allocation scheme for creating
-pools), and give the requester a random bridge from the appropriate
-partition. To raise the bar, we should discard the last octet of the
-IP address before inputting it to the hash function, so an attacker
-who only controls a single "/24" network only counts as one user. A
-large attacker like China will still be able to control many addresses,
-but the hassle of establishing connections from each network (or spoofing
-TCP connections) may still slow them down. Similarly, as a special case,
-we should treat IP addresses that are Tor exit nodes as all being on
-the same network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The third strategy combines the time-based and location-based
-strategies to further constrain and rate-limit the available bridge
-addresses. Specifically, the bridge address provided in a given time
-slot to a given network location is deterministic within the partition,
-rather than chosen randomly each time from the partition. Thus, repeated
-requests during that time slot from a given network are given the same
-bridge address as the first request.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The fourth strategy is based on Circumventor's discovery strategy.
-The Circumventor project, realizing that its adoption will remain limited
-if it has no central coordination mechanism, has started a mailing list to
-distribute new proxy addresses every few days. From experimentation it
-seems they have concluded that sending updates every three or four days
-is sufficient to stay ahead of the current attackers.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The fifth strategy provides an alternative approach to a mailing list:
-users provide an email address and receive an automated response
-listing an available bridge address. We could limit one response per
-email address. To further rate limit queries, we could require a CAPTCHA
-solution
-in each case too. In fact, we wouldn't need to
-implement the CAPTCHA on our side: if we only deliver bridge addresses
-to Yahoo or GMail addresses, we can leverage the rate-limiting schemes
-that other parties already impose for account creation.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The sixth strategy ties in the social network design with public
-bridges and a reputation system. We pick some seeds &mdash; trusted people in
-blocked areas &mdash; and give them each a few dozen bridge addresses and a few
-<em>delegation tokens</em>. We run a website next to the bridge authority,
-where users can log in (they connect via Tor, and they don't need to
-provide actual identities, just persistent pseudonyms). Users can delegate
-trust to other people they know by giving them a token, which can be
-exchanged for a new account on the website. Accounts in "good standing"
-then accrue new bridge addresses and new tokens. As usual, reputation
-schemes bring in a host of new complexities&nbsp;[<a href="#rep-anon" name="CITErep-anon">10</a>]: how do we
-decide that an account is in good standing? We could tie reputation
-to whether the bridges they're told about have been blocked &mdash; see
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:geoip">7.7</a> below for initial thoughts on how to discover
-whether bridges have been blocked. We could track reputation between
-accounts (if you delegate to somebody who screws up, it impacts you too),
-or we could use blinded delegation tokens&nbsp;[<a href="#chaum-blind" name="CITEchaum-blind">5</a>] to prevent
-the website from mapping the seeds' social network. We put off deeper
-discussion of the social network reputation strategy for future work.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Pools seven and eight are held in reserve, in case our currently deployed
-tricks all fail at once and the adversary blocks all those bridges &mdash; so
-we can adapt and move to new approaches quickly, and have some bridges
-immediately available for the new schemes. New strategies might be based
-on some other scarce resource, such as relaying traffic for others or
-other proof of energy spent. (We might also worry about the incentives
-for bridges that sign up and get allocated to the reserve pools: will they
-be unhappy that they're not being used? But this is a transient problem:
-if Tor users are bridges by default, nobody will mind not being used yet.
-See also Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:incentives">9.4</a>.)
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc7.5">
-7.5</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Public bridges with coordinated discovery</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We presented the above discovery strategies in the context of a single
-bridge directory authority, but in practice we will want to distribute the
-operations over several bridge authorities &mdash; a single point of failure
-or attack is a bad move. The first answer is to run several independent
-bridge directory authorities, and bridges gravitate to one based on
-their identity key. The better answer would be some federation of bridge
-authorities that work together to provide redundancy but don't introduce
-new security issues. We could even imagine designs where the bridge
-authorities have encrypted versions of the bridge's server descriptors,
-and the users learn a decryption key that they keep private when they
-first hear about the bridge &mdash; this way the bridge authorities would not
-be able to learn the IP address of the bridges.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We leave this design question for future work.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc7.6">
-7.6</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Assessing whether bridges are useful</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Learning whether a bridge is useful is important in the bridge authority's
-decision to include it in responses to blocked users. For example, if
-we end up with a list of thousands of bridges and only a few dozen of
-them are reachable right now, most blocked users will not end up knowing
-about working bridges.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-There are three components for assessing how useful a bridge is. First,
-is it reachable from the public Internet? Second, what proportion of
-the time is it available? Third, is it blocked in certain jurisdictions?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The first component can be tested just as we test reachability of
-ordinary Tor servers. Specifically, the bridges do a self-test &mdash; connect
-to themselves via the Tor network &mdash; before they are willing to
-publish their descriptor, to make sure they're not obviously broken or
-misconfigured. Once the bridges publish, the bridge authority also tests
-reachability to make sure they're not confused or outright lying.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The second component can be measured and tracked by the bridge authority.
-By doing periodic reachability tests, we can get a sense of how often the
-bridge is available. More complex tests will involve bandwidth-intensive
-checks to force the bridge to commit resources in order to be counted as
-available. We need to evaluate how the relationship of uptime percentage
-should weigh into our choice of which bridges to advertise. We leave
-this to future work.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The third component is perhaps the trickiest: with many different
-adversaries out there, how do we keep track of which adversaries have
-blocked which bridges, and how do we learn about new blocks as they
-occur? We examine this problem next.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc7.7">
-<a name="subsec:geoip">
-7.7</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;How do we know if a bridge relay has been blocked?</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-There are two main mechanisms for testing whether bridges are reachable
-from inside each blocked area: active testing via users, and passive
-testing via bridges.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In the case of active testing, certain users inside each area
-sign up as testing relays. The bridge authorities can then use a
-Blossom-like&nbsp;[<a href="#blossom-thesis" name="CITEblossom-thesis">16</a>] system to build circuits through them
-to each bridge and see if it can establish the connection. But how do
-we pick the users? If we ask random users to do the testing (or if we
-solicit volunteers from the users), the adversary should sign up so he
-can enumerate the bridges we test. Indeed, even if we hand-select our
-testers, the adversary might still discover their location and monitor
-their network activity to learn bridge addresses.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Another answer is not to measure directly, but rather let the bridges
-report whether they're being used.
-Specifically, bridges should install a GeoIP database such as the public
-IP-To-Country list&nbsp;[<a href="#ip-to-country" name="CITEip-to-country">19</a>], and then periodically report to the
-bridge authorities which countries they're seeing use from. This data
-would help us track which countries are making use of the bridge design,
-and can also let us learn about new steps the adversary has taken in
-the arms race. (The compressed GeoIP database is only several hundred
-kilobytes, and we could even automate the update process by serving it
-from the bridge authorities.)
-More analysis of this passive reachability
-testing design is needed to resolve its many edge cases: for example,
-if a bridge stops seeing use from a certain area, does that mean the
-bridge is blocked or does that mean those users are asleep?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-There are many more problems with the general concept of detecting whether
-bridges are blocked. First, different zones of the Internet are blocked
-in different ways, and the actual firewall jurisdictions do not match
-country borders. Our bridge scheme could help us map out the topology
-of the censored Internet, but this is a huge task. More generally,
-if a bridge relay isn't reachable, is that because of a network block
-somewhere, because of a problem at the bridge relay, or just a temporary
-outage somewhere in between? And last, an attacker could poison our
-bridge database by signing up already-blocked bridges. In this case,
-if we're stingy giving out bridge addresses, users in that country won't
-learn working bridges.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-All of these issues are made more complex when we try to integrate this
-testing into our social network reputation system above.
-Since in that case we punish or reward users based on whether bridges
-get blocked, the adversary has new attacks to trick or bog down the
-reputation tracking. Indeed, the bridge authority doesn't even know
-what zone the blocked user is in, so do we blame him for any possible
-censored zone, or what?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Clearly more analysis is required. The eventual solution will probably
-involve a combination of passive measurement via GeoIP and active
-measurement from trusted testers.  More generally, we can use the passive
-feedback mechanism to track usage of the bridge network as a whole &mdash; which
-would let us respond to attacks and adapt the design, and it would also
-let the general public track the progress of the project.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc7.8">
-7.8</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Advantages of deploying all solutions at once</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-For once, we're not in the position of the defender: we don't have to
-defend against every possible filtering scheme; we just have to defend
-against at least one. On the flip side, the attacker is forced to guess
-how to allocate his resources to defend against each of these discovery
-strategies. So by deploying all of our strategies at once, we not only
-increase our chances of finding one that the adversary has difficulty
-blocking, but we actually make <em>all</em> of the strategies more robust
-in the face of an adversary with limited resources.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc8">
-<a name="sec:security">
-8</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Security considerations</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc8.1">
-8.1</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Possession of Tor in oppressed areas</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Many people speculate that installing and using a Tor client in areas with
-particularly extreme firewalls is a high risk &mdash; and the risk increases
-as the firewall gets more restrictive. This notion certainly has merit, but
-there's
-a counter pressure as well: as the firewall gets more restrictive, more
-ordinary people behind it end up using Tor for more mainstream activities,
-such as learning
-about Wall Street prices or looking at pictures of women's ankles. So
-as the restrictive firewall pushes up the number of Tor users, the
-"typical" Tor user becomes more mainstream, and therefore mere
-use or possession of the Tor software is not so surprising.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-It's hard to say which of these pressures will ultimately win out,
-but we should keep both sides of the issue in mind.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc8.2">
-<a name="subsec:upload-padding">
-8.2</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Observers can tell who is publishing and who is reading</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Tor encrypts traffic on the local network, and it obscures the eventual
-destination of the communication, but it doesn't do much to obscure the
-traffic volume. In particular, a user publishing a home video will have a
-different network fingerprint than a user reading an online news article.
-Based on our assumption in Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:adversary">2</a> that users who
-publish material are in more danger, should we work to improve Tor's
-security in this situation?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In the general case this is an extremely challenging task:
-effective <em>end-to-end traffic confirmation attacks</em>
-are known where the adversary observes the origin and the
-destination of traffic and confirms that they are part of the
-same communication&nbsp;[<a href="#danezis:pet2004" name="CITEdanezis:pet2004">8</a>,<a href="#e2e-traffic" name="CITEe2e-traffic">24</a>]. Related are
-<em>website fingerprinting attacks</em>, where the adversary downloads
-a few hundred popular websites, makes a set of "fingerprints" for each
-site, and then observes the target Tor client's traffic to look for
-a match&nbsp;[<a href="#pet05-bissias" name="CITEpet05-bissias">4</a>,<a href="#defensive-dropping" name="CITEdefensive-dropping">21</a>]. But can we do better
-against a limited adversary who just does coarse-grained sweeps looking
-for unusually prolific publishers?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-One answer is for bridge users to automatically send bursts of padding
-traffic periodically. (This traffic can be implemented in terms of
-long-range drop cells, which are already part of the Tor specification.)
-Of course, convincingly simulating an actual human publishing interesting
-content is a difficult arms race, but it may be worthwhile to at least
-start the race. More research remains.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc8.3">
-8.3</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Anonymity effects from acting as a bridge relay</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Against some attacks, relaying traffic for others can improve
-anonymity. The simplest example is an attacker who owns a small number
-of Tor servers. He will see a connection from the bridge, but he won't
-be able to know whether the connection originated there or was relayed
-from somebody else. More generally, the mere uncertainty of whether the
-traffic originated from that user may be helpful.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-There are some cases where it doesn't seem to help: if an attacker can
-watch all of the bridge's incoming and outgoing traffic, then it's easy
-to learn which connections were relayed and which started there. (In this
-case he still doesn't know the final destinations unless he is watching
-them too, but in this case bridges are no better off than if they were
-an ordinary client.)
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-There are also some potential downsides to running a bridge. First, while
-we try to make it hard to enumerate all bridges, it's still possible to
-learn about some of them, and for some people just the fact that they're
-running one might signal to an attacker that they place a higher value
-on their anonymity. Second, there are some more esoteric attacks on Tor
-relays that are not as well-understood or well-tested &mdash; for example, an
-attacker may be able to "observe" whether the bridge is sending traffic
-even if he can't actually watch its network, by relaying traffic through
-it and noticing changes in traffic timing&nbsp;[<a href="#attack-tor-oak05" name="CITEattack-tor-oak05">25</a>]. On
-the other hand, it may be that limiting the bandwidth the bridge is
-willing to relay will allow this sort of attacker to determine if it's
-being used as a bridge but not easily learn whether it is adding traffic
-of its own.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We also need to examine how entry guards fit in. Entry guards
-(a small set of nodes that are always used for the first
-step in a circuit) help protect against certain attacks
-where the attacker runs a few Tor servers and waits for
-the user to choose these servers as the beginning and end of her
-circuit<a href="#tthFtNtAAC" name="tthFrefAAC"><sup>2</sup></a>.
-If the blocked user doesn't use the bridge's entry guards, then the bridge
-doesn't gain as much cover benefit. On the other hand, what design changes
-are needed for the blocked user to use the bridge's entry guards without
-learning what they are (this seems hard), and even if we solve that,
-do they then need to use the guards' guards and so on down the line?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-It is an open research question whether the benefits of running a bridge
-outweigh the risks. A lot of the decision rests on which attacks the
-users are most worried about. For most users, we don't think running a
-bridge relay will be that damaging, and it could help quite a bit.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc8.4">
-<a name="subsec:cafes-and-livecds">
-8.4</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Trusting local hardware: Internet cafes and LiveCDs</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Assuming that users have their own trusted hardware is not
-always reasonable.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-For Internet cafe Windows computers that let you attach your own USB key,
-a USB-based Tor image would be smart. There's Torpark, and hopefully
-there will be more thoroughly analyzed and trustworthy options down the
-road. Worries remain about hardware or software keyloggers and other
-spyware, as well as physical surveillance.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-If the system lets you boot from a CD or from a USB key, you can gain
-a bit more security by bringing a privacy LiveCD with you. (This
-approach isn't foolproof either of course, since hardware
-keyloggers and physical surveillance are still a worry).
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In fact, LiveCDs are also useful if it's your own hardware, since it's
-easier to avoid leaving private data and logs scattered around the
-system.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc8.5">
-<a name="subsec:trust-chain">
-8.5</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;The trust chain</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Tor's "public key infrastructure" provides a chain of trust to
-let users verify that they're actually talking to the right servers.
-There are four pieces to this trust chain.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-First, when Tor clients are establishing circuits, at each step
-they demand that the next Tor server in the path prove knowledge of
-its private key&nbsp;[<a href="#tor-design" name="CITEtor-design">11</a>]. This step prevents the first node
-in the path from just spoofing the rest of the path. Second, the
-Tor directory authorities provide a signed list of servers along with
-their public keys &mdash; so unless the adversary can control a threshold
-of directory authorities, he can't trick the Tor client into using other
-Tor servers. Third, the location and keys of the directory authorities,
-in turn, is hard-coded in the Tor source code &mdash; so as long as the user
-got a genuine version of Tor, he can know that he is using the genuine
-Tor network. And last, the source code and other packages are signed
-with the GPG keys of the Tor developers, so users can confirm that they
-did in fact download a genuine version of Tor.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In the case of blocked users contacting bridges and bridge directory
-authorities, the same logic applies in parallel: the blocked users fetch
-information from both the bridge authorities and the directory authorities
-for the `main' Tor network, and they combine this information locally.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-How can a user in an oppressed country know that he has the correct
-key fingerprints for the developers? As with other security systems, it
-ultimately comes down to human interaction. The keys are signed by dozens
-of people around the world, and we have to hope that our users have met
-enough people in the PGP web of trust
-that they can learn
-the correct keys. For users that aren't connected to the global security
-community, though, this question remains a critical weakness.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc9">
-<a name="sec:reachability">
-9</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Maintaining reachability</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc9.1">
-9.1</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;How many bridge relays should you know about?</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The strategies described in Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:discovery">7</a> talked about
-learning one bridge address at a time. But if most bridges are ordinary
-Tor users on cable modem or DSL connection, many of them will disappear
-and/or move periodically. How many bridge relays should a blocked user
-know about so that she is likely to have at least one reachable at any
-given point? This is already a challenging problem if we only consider
-natural churn: the best approach is to see what bridges we attract in
-reality and measure their churn. We may also need to factor in a parameter
-for how quickly bridges get discovered and blocked by the attacker;
-we leave this for future work after we have more deployment experience.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-A related question is: if the bridge relays change IP addresses
-periodically, how often does the blocked user need to fetch updates in
-order to keep from being cut out of the loop?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Once we have more experience and intuition, we should explore technical
-solutions to this problem too. For example, if the discovery strategies
-give out k bridge addresses rather than a single bridge address, perhaps
-we can improve robustness from the user perspective without significantly
-aiding the adversary. Rather than giving out a new random subset of k
-addresses at each point, we could bind them together into <em>bridge
-families</em>, so all users that learn about one member of the bridge family
-are told about the rest as well.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-This scheme may also help defend against attacks to map the set of
-bridges. That is, if all blocked users learn a random subset of bridges,
-the attacker should learn about a few bridges, monitor the country-level
-firewall for connections to them, then watch those users to see what
-other bridges they use, and repeat. By segmenting the bridge address
-space, we can limit the exposure of other users.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc9.2">
-<a name="subsec:block-cable">
-9.2</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Cablemodem users don't usually provide important websites</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Another attacker we might be concerned about is that the attacker could
-just block all DSL and cablemodem network addresses, on the theory that
-they don't run any important services anyway. If most of our bridges
-are on these networks, this attack could really hurt.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The first answer is to aim to get volunteers both from traditionally
-"consumer" networks and also from traditionally "producer" networks.
-Since bridges don't need to be Tor exit nodes, as we improve our usability
-it seems quite feasible to get a lot of websites helping out.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The second answer (not as practical) would be to encourage more use of
-consumer networks for popular and useful Internet services.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-A related attack we might worry about is based on large countries putting
-economic pressure on companies that want to expand their business. For
-example, what happens if Verizon wants to sell services in China, and
-China pressures Verizon to discourage its users in the free world from
-running bridges?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc9.3">
-9.3</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Scanning resistance: making bridges more subtle</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-If it's trivial to verify that a given address is operating as a bridge,
-and most bridges run on a predictable port, then it's conceivable our
-attacker could scan the whole Internet looking for bridges. (In fact,
-he can just concentrate on scanning likely networks like cablemodem
-and DSL services &mdash; see Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:block-cable">9.2</a>
-above for
-related attacks.) It would be nice to slow down this attack. It would
-be even nicer to make it hard to learn whether we're a bridge without
-first knowing some secret. We call this general property <em>scanning
-resistance</em>, and it goes along with normalizing Tor's TLS handshake and
-network fingerprint.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We could provide a password to the blocked user, and she (or her Tor
-client) provides a nonced hash of this password when she connects. We'd
-need to give her an ID key for the bridge too (in addition to the IP
-address and port &mdash; see Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:id-address">6.1</a>), and wait to
-present the password until we've finished the TLS handshake, else it
-would look unusual. If Alice can authenticate the bridge before she
-tries to send her password, we can resist an adversary who pretends
-to be the bridge and launches a man-in-the-middle attack to learn the
-password. But even if she can't, we still resist against widespread
-scanning.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-How should the bridge behave if accessed without the correct
-authorization? Perhaps it should act like an unconfigured HTTPS server
-("welcome to the default Apache page"), or maybe it should mirror
-and act like common websites, or websites randomly chosen from Google.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We might assume that the attacker can recognize HTTPS connections that
-use self-signed certificates. (This process would be resource-intensive
-but not out of the realm of possibility.) But even in this case, many
-popular websites around the Internet use self-signed or just plain broken
-SSL certificates.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc9.4">
-<a name="subsec:incentives">
-9.4</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;How to motivate people to run bridge relays</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-One of the traditional ways to get people to run software that benefits
-others is to give them motivation to install it themselves.  An often
-suggested approach is to install it as a stunning screensaver so everybody
-will be pleased to run it. We take a similar approach here, by leveraging
-the fact that these users are already interested in protecting their
-own Internet traffic, so they will install and run the software.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Eventually, we may be able to make all Tor users become bridges if they
-pass their self-reachability tests &mdash; the software and installers need
-more work on usability first, but we're making progress.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In the mean time, we can make a snazzy network graph with
-Vidalia<a href="#tthFtNtAAD" name="tthFrefAAD"><sup>3</sup></a> that
-emphasizes the connections the bridge user is currently relaying.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc9.5">
-<a name="subsec:publicity">
-9.5</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Publicity attracts attention</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Many people working on this field want to publicize the existence
-and extent of censorship concurrently with the deployment of their
-circumvention software. The easy reason for this two-pronged push is
-to attract volunteers for running proxies in their systems; but in many
-cases their main goal is not to focus on actually allowing individuals
-to circumvent the firewall, but rather to educate the world about the
-censorship. The media also tries to do its part by broadcasting the
-existence of each new circumvention system.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-But at the same time, this publicity attracts the attention of the
-censors. We can slow down the arms race by not attracting as much
-attention, and just spreading by word of mouth. If our goal is to
-establish a solid social network of bridges and bridge users before
-the adversary gets involved, does this extra attention work to our
-disadvantage?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc9.6">
-9.6</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Tor website: how to get the software</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-One of the first censoring attacks against a system like ours is to
-block the website and make the software itself hard to find. Our system
-should work well once the user is running an authentic
-copy of Tor and has found a working bridge, but to get to that point
-we rely on their individual skills and ingenuity.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Right now, most countries that block access to Tor block only the main
-website and leave mirrors and the network itself untouched.
-Falling back on word-of-mouth is always a good last resort, but we should
-also take steps to make sure it's relatively easy for users to get a copy,
-such as publicizing the mirrors more and making copies available through
-other media. We might also mirror the latest version of the software on
-each bridge, so users who hear about an honest bridge can get a good
-copy.
-See Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:first-bridge">7.1</a> for more discussion.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc10">
-<a name="sec:future">
-10</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Future designs</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc10.1">
-10.1</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Bridges inside the blocked network too</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Assuming actually crossing the firewall is the risky part of the
-operation, can we have some bridge relays inside the blocked area too,
-and more established users can use them as relays so they don't need to
-communicate over the firewall directly at all? A simple example here is
-to make new blocked users into internal bridges also &mdash; so they sign up
-on the bridge authority as part of doing their query, and we give out
-their addresses
-rather than (or along with) the external bridge addresses. This design
-is a lot trickier because it brings in the complexity of whether the
-internal bridges will remain available, can maintain reachability with
-the outside world, etc.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-More complex future designs involve operating a separate Tor network
-inside the blocked area, and using <em>hidden service bridges</em> &mdash; bridges
-that can be accessed by users of the internal Tor network but whose
-addresses are not published or findable, even by these users &mdash; to get
-from inside the firewall to the rest of the Internet. But this design
-requires directory authorities to run inside the blocked area too,
-and they would be a fine target to take down the network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc11">
-<a name="sec:conclusion">
-11</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Next Steps</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Technical solutions won't solve the whole censorship problem. After all,
-the firewalls in places like China are <em>socially</em> very
-successful, even if technologies and tricks exist to get around them.
-However, having a strong technical solution is still necessary as one
-important piece of the puzzle.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In this paper, we have shown that Tor provides a great set of building
-blocks to start from. The next steps are to deploy prototype bridges and
-bridge authorities, implement some of the proposed discovery strategies,
-and then observe the system in operation and get more intuition about
-the actual requirements and adversaries we're up against.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<h2>References</h2>
-
-<dl compact="compact">
- <dt><a href="#CITEeconymics" name="econymics">[1]</a></dt><dd>
-Alessandro Acquisti, Roger Dingledine, and Paul Syverson.
- On the economics of anonymity.
- In Rebecca&nbsp;N. Wright, editor, <em>Financial Cryptography</em>.
-  Springer-Verlag, LNCS 2742, 2003.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEfreedom21-security" name="freedom21-security">[2]</a></dt><dd>
-Adam Back, Ian Goldberg, and Adam Shostack.
- Freedom systems 2.1 security issues and analysis.
- White paper, Zero Knowledge Systems, Inc., May 2001.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEweb-mix" name="web-mix">[3]</a></dt><dd>
-Oliver Berthold, Hannes Federrath, and Stefan K&#246;psell.
- Web MIXes: A system for anonymous and unobservable Internet
-  access.
- In H.&nbsp;Federrath, editor, <em>Designing Privacy Enhancing
-  Technologies: Workshop on Design Issue in Anonymity and Unobservability</em>.
-  Springer-Verlag, LNCS 2009, 2000.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEpet05-bissias" name="pet05-bissias">[4]</a></dt><dd>
-George&nbsp;Dean Bissias, Marc Liberatore, and Brian&nbsp;Neil Levine.
- Privacy vulnerabilities in encrypted http streams.
- In <em>Proceedings of Privacy Enhancing Technologies workshop (PET
-  2005)</em>, May 2005.
-
-  <a href="http://prisms.cs.umass.edu/brian/pubs/bissias.liberatore.pet.2005.pdf"><tt>http://prisms.cs.umass.edu/brian/pubs/bissias.liberatore.pet.2005.pdf</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEchaum-blind" name="chaum-blind">[5]</a></dt><dd>
-David Chaum.
- Blind signatures for untraceable payments.
- In D.&nbsp;Chaum, R.L. Rivest, and A.T. Sherman, editors, <em>Advances in
-  Cryptology: Proceedings of Crypto 82</em>, pages 199-203. Plenum Press, 1983.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEfreenet-pets00" name="freenet-pets00">[6]</a></dt><dd>
-Ian Clarke, Oskar Sandberg, Brandon Wiley, and Theodore&nbsp;W. Hong.
- Freenet: A distributed anonymous information storage and retrieval
-  system.
- In H.&nbsp;Federrath, editor, <em>Designing Privacy Enhancing
-  Technologies: Workshop on Design Issue in Anonymity and Unobservability</em>,
-  pages 46-66. Springer-Verlag, LNCS 2009, July 2000.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEclayton:pet2006" name="clayton:pet2006">[7]</a></dt><dd>
-Richard Clayton, Steven&nbsp;J. Murdoch, and Robert N.&nbsp;M. Watson.
- Ignoring the great firewall of china.
- In <em>Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Privacy Enhancing
-  Technologies (PET 2006)</em>, Cambridge, UK, June 2006. Springer.
- <a href="http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf"><tt>http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEdanezis:pet2004" name="danezis:pet2004">[8]</a></dt><dd>
-George Danezis.
- The traffic analysis of continuous-time mixes.
- In David Martin and Andrei Serjantov, editors, <em>Privacy Enhancing
-  Technologies (PET 2004)</em>, LNCS, May 2004.
- <a href="http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/users/gd216/cmm2.pdf"><tt>http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/users/gd216/cmm2.pdf</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEusability:weis2006" name="usability:weis2006">[9]</a></dt><dd>
-Roger Dingledine and Nick Mathewson.
- Anonymity loves company: Usability and the network effect.
- In <em>Proceedings of the Fifth Workshop on the Economics of
-  Information Security (WEIS 2006)</em>, Cambridge, UK, June 2006.
- <a href="http://freehaven.net/doc/wupss04/usability.pdf"><tt>http://freehaven.net/doc/wupss04/usability.pdf</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITErep-anon" name="rep-anon">[10]</a></dt><dd>
-Roger Dingledine, Nick Mathewson, and Paul Syverson.
- Reputation in P2P Anonymity Systems.
- In <em>Proceedings of Workshop on Economics of Peer-to-Peer
-  Systems</em>, June 2003.
- <a href="http://freehaven.net/doc/econp2p03/econp2p03.pdf"><tt>http://freehaven.net/doc/econp2p03/econp2p03.pdf</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEtor-design" name="tor-design">[11]</a></dt><dd>
-Roger Dingledine, Nick Mathewson, and Paul Syverson.
- Tor: The second-generation onion router.
- In <em>Proceedings of the 13th USENIX Security Symposium</em>, August
-  2004.
- <a href="http://tor.eff.org/tor-design.pdf"><tt>http://tor.eff.org/tor-design.pdf</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEcasc-rep" name="casc-rep">[12]</a></dt><dd>
-Roger Dingledine and Paul Syverson.
- Reliable MIX Cascade Networks through Reputation.
- In Matt Blaze, editor, <em>Financial Cryptography</em>. Springer-Verlag,
-  LNCS 2357, 2002.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEpsiphon" name="psiphon">[13]</a></dt><dd>
-Ronald&nbsp;Deibert et&nbsp;al.
- Psiphon.
- <a href="http://psiphon.civisec.org/"><tt>http://psiphon.civisec.org/</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEinfranet" name="infranet">[14]</a></dt><dd>
-Nick Feamster, Magdalena Balazinska, Greg Harfst, Hari Balakrishnan, and David
-  Karger.
- Infranet: Circumventing web censorship and surveillance.
- In <em>Proceedings of the 11th USENIX Security Symposium</em>, August
-  2002.
- <a href="http://nms.lcs.mit.edu/~feamster/papers/usenixsec2002.pdf"><tt>http://nms.lcs.mit.edu/~feamster/papers/usenixsec2002.pdf</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEactive-wardens" name="active-wardens">[15]</a></dt><dd>
-Gina Fisk, Mike Fisk, Christos Papadopoulos, and Joshua Neil.
- Eliminating steganography in internet traffic with active wardens.
- In Fabien Petitcolas, editor, <em>Information Hiding Workshop (IH
-  2002)</em>. Springer-Verlag, LNCS 2578, October 2002.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEblossom-thesis" name="blossom-thesis">[16]</a></dt><dd>
-Geoffrey Goodell.
- <em>Perspective Access Networks</em>.
- PhD thesis, Harvard University, July 2006.
- <a href="http://afs.eecs.harvard.edu/~goodell/thesis.pdf"><tt>http://afs.eecs.harvard.edu/~goodell/thesis.pdf</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEgoodell-syverson06" name="goodell-syverson06">[17]</a></dt><dd>
-Geoffrey Goodell and Paul Syverson.
- The right place at the right time: The use of network location in
-  authentication and abuse prevention, 2006.
- Submitted.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEcircumventor" name="circumventor">[18]</a></dt><dd>
-Bennett Haselton.
- How to install the Circumventor program.
-
-  <a href="http://www.peacefire.org/circumventor/simple-circumventor-instructions.html"><tt>http://www.peacefire.org/circumventor/simple-circumventor-instructions.html</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEip-to-country" name="ip-to-country">[19]</a></dt><dd>
-Ip-to-country database.
- <a href="http://ip-to-country.webhosting.info/"><tt>http://ip-to-country.webhosting.info/</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEkoepsell:wpes2004" name="koepsell:wpes2004">[20]</a></dt><dd>
-Stefan K&#246;psell and Ulf Hilling.
- How to achieve blocking resistance for existing systems enabling
-  anonymous web surfing.
- In <em>Proceedings of the Workshop on Privacy in the Electronic
-  Society (WPES 2004)</em>, Washington, DC, USA, October 2004.
- <a href="http://freehaven.net/anonbib/papers/p103-koepsell.pdf"><tt>http://freehaven.net/anonbib/papers/p103-koepsell.pdf</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEdefensive-dropping" name="defensive-dropping">[21]</a></dt><dd>
-Brian&nbsp;N. Levine, Michael&nbsp;K. Reiter, Chenxi Wang, and Matthew Wright.
- Timing analysis in low-latency mix-based systems.
- In Ari Juels, editor, <em>Financial Cryptography</em>. Springer-Verlag,
-  LNCS (forthcoming), 2004.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEmackinnon-personal" name="mackinnon-personal">[22]</a></dt><dd>
-Rebecca MacKinnon.
- Private communication, 2006.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEcgiproxy" name="cgiproxy">[23]</a></dt><dd>
-James Marshall.
- CGIProxy: HTTP/FTP Proxy in a CGI Script.
- <a href="http://www.jmarshall.com/tools/cgiproxy/"><tt>http://www.jmarshall.com/tools/cgiproxy/</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEe2e-traffic" name="e2e-traffic">[24]</a></dt><dd>
-Nick Mathewson and Roger Dingledine.
- Practical traffic analysis: Extending and resisting statistical
-  disclosure.
- In David Martin and Andrei Serjantov, editors, <em>Privacy Enhancing
-  Technologies (PET 2004)</em>, LNCS, May 2004.
- <a href="http://freehaven.net/doc/e2e-traffic/e2e-traffic.pdf"><tt>http://freehaven.net/doc/e2e-traffic/e2e-traffic.pdf</tt></a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEattack-tor-oak05" name="attack-tor-oak05">[25]</a></dt><dd>
-Steven&nbsp;J. Murdoch and George Danezis.
- Low-cost traffic analysis of tor.
- In <em>IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy</em>. IEEE CS, May 2005.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEtcpstego" name="tcpstego">[26]</a></dt><dd>
-Steven&nbsp;J. Murdoch and Stephen Lewis.
- Embedding covert channels into TCP/IP.
- In Mauro Barni, Jordi Herrera-Joancomart&#237;, Stefan Katzenbeisser,
-  and Fernando P&#233;rez-Gonz&#225;lez, editors, <em>Information Hiding: 7th
-  International Workshop</em>, volume 3727 of <em>LNCS</em>, pages 247-261,
-  Barcelona, Catalonia (Spain), June 2005. Springer-Verlag.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEptacek98insertion" name="ptacek98insertion">[27]</a></dt><dd>
-Thomas&nbsp;H. Ptacek and Timothy&nbsp;N. Newsham.
- Insertion, evasion, and denial of service: Eluding network intrusion
-  detection.
- Technical report, Secure Networks, Inc., Suite 330, 1201 5th Street
-  S.W, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, T2R-0Y6, 1998.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEzuckerman-threatmodels" name="zuckerman-threatmodels">[28]</a></dt><dd>
-Ethan Zuckerman.
- We've got to adjust some of our threat models.
- <a href="http://www.ethanzuckerman.com/blog/?p=1019"><tt>http://www.ethanzuckerman.com/blog/?p=1019</tt></a>.</dd>
-</dl>
-
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<hr /><h3>Footnotes:</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<a name="tthFtNtAAB"></a><a href="#tthFrefAAB"><sup>1</sup></a>So far in places
-  like China, the authorities mainly go after people who publish materials
-  and coordinate organized movements&nbsp;[<a href="#mackinnon-personal" name="CITEmackinnon-personal">22</a>].
-  If they find that a
-  user happens to be reading a site that should be blocked, the typical
-  response is simply to block the site. Of course, even with an encrypted
-  connection, the adversary may be able to distinguish readers from
-  publishers by observing whether Alice is mostly downloading bytes or mostly
-  uploading them &mdash; we discuss this issue more in
-  Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:upload-padding">8.2</a>.
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<a name="tthFtNtAAC"></a><a href="#tthFrefAAC"><sup>2</sup></a><a href="http://wiki.noreply.org/noreply/TheOnionRouter/TorFAQ\#EntryGuards"><tt>http://wiki.noreply.org/noreply/TheOnionRouter/TorFAQ#EntryGuards</tt></a>
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<a name="tthFtNtAAD"></a><a href="#tthFrefAAD"><sup>3</sup></a><a href="http://vidalia-project.net/"><tt>http://vidalia-project.net/</tt></a>
-<br /><br /><hr /><small>File translated from
-T<sub><font size="-1">E</font></sub>X
-by <a href="http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/">
-T<sub><font size="-1">T</font></sub>H</a>,
-version 3.77.<br />On 11 May 2007, 21:49.</small>
-</html>
-

doc/design-paper/blocking.tex

@@ -1,1894 +0,0 @@
-%\documentclass{llncs}
-\documentclass{usenixsubmit}
-%\documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
-%usepackage{usenix}
-
-\usepackage{url}
-\usepackage{amsmath}
-\usepackage{epsfig}
-
-\setlength{\textwidth}{6.0in}
-\setlength{\textheight}{8.5in}
-\setlength{\topmargin}{.5cm}
-\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{1cm}
-\setlength{\evensidemargin}{1cm}
-
-\newenvironment{tightlist}{\begin{list}{$\bullet$}{
-  \setlength{\itemsep}{0mm}
-    \setlength{\parsep}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\labelsep}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\labelwidth}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\topsep}{0mm}
-    }}{\end{list}}
-
-\newcommand{\workingnote}[1]{}        % The version that hides the note.
-%\newcommand{\workingnote}[1]{(**#1)}   % makes the note visible.
-
-\date{}
-\title{Design of a blocking-resistant anonymity system\\DRAFT}
-
-%\author{Roger Dingledine\inst{1} \and Nick Mathewson\inst{1}}
-\author{Roger Dingledine \\ The Tor Project \\ arma@torproject.org \and
-Nick Mathewson \\ The Tor Project \\ nickm@torproject.org}
-
-\begin{document}
-\maketitle
-\pagestyle{plain}
-
-\begin{abstract}
-
-Internet censorship is on the rise as websites around the world are
-increasingly blocked by government-level firewalls.  Although popular
-anonymizing networks like Tor were originally designed to keep attackers from
-tracing people's activities, many people are also using them to evade local
-censorship.  But if the censor simply denies access to the Tor network
-itself, blocked users can no longer benefit from the security Tor offers.
-
-Here we describe a design that builds upon the current Tor network
-to provide an anonymizing network that resists blocking
-by government-level attackers. We have implemented and deployed this
-design, and talk briefly about early use.
-
-\end{abstract}
-
-\section{Introduction}
-
-Anonymizing networks like Tor~\cite{tor-design} bounce traffic around a
-network of encrypting relays.  Unlike encryption, which hides only {\it what}
-is said, these networks also aim to hide who is communicating with whom, which
-users are using which websites, and so on.  These systems have a
-broad range of users, including ordinary citizens who want to avoid being
-profiled for targeted advertisements, corporations who don't want to reveal
-information to their competitors, and law enforcement and government
-intelligence agencies who need to do operations on the Internet without being
-noticed.
-
-Historical anonymity research has focused on an
-attacker who monitors the user (call her Alice) and tries to discover her
-activities, yet lets her reach any piece of the network. In more modern
-threat models such as Tor's, the adversary is allowed to perform active
-attacks such as modifying communications to trick Alice
-into revealing her destination, or intercepting some connections
-to run a man-in-the-middle attack. But these systems still assume that
-Alice can eventually reach the anonymizing network.
-
-An increasing number of users are using the Tor software
-less for its anonymity properties than for its censorship
-resistance properties---if they use Tor to access Internet sites like
-Wikipedia
-and Blogspot, they are no longer affected by local censorship
-and firewall rules. In fact, an informal user study
-%(described in Appendix~\ref{app:geoip})
-showed that a few hundred thousand users people access the Tor network
-each day, with about 20\% of them coming from China~\cite{something}.
-
-The current Tor design is easy to block if the attacker controls Alice's
-connection to the Tor network---by blocking the directory authorities,
-by blocking all the relay IP addresses in the directory, or by filtering
-based on the network fingerprint of the Tor TLS handshake. Here we
-describe an
-extended design that builds upon the current Tor network to provide an
-anonymizing
-network that resists censorship as well as anonymity-breaking attacks.
-In section~\ref{sec:adversary} we discuss our threat model---that is,
-the assumptions we make about our adversary. Section~\ref{sec:current-tor}
-describes the components of the current Tor design and how they can be
-leveraged for a new blocking-resistant design. Section~\ref{sec:related}
-explains the features and drawbacks of the currently deployed solutions.
-In sections~\ref{sec:bridges} through~\ref{sec:discovery}, we explore the
-components of our designs in detail.  Section~\ref{sec:security} considers
-security implications and Section~\ref{sec:reachability} presents other
-issues with maintaining connectivity and sustainability for the design.
-%Section~\ref{sec:future} speculates about future more complex designs,
-Finally section~\ref{sec:conclusion} summarizes our next steps and
-recommendations.
-
-% The other motivation is for places where we're concerned they will
-% try to enumerate a list of Tor users. So even if they're not blocking
-% the Tor network, it may be smart to not be visible as connecting to it.
-
-%And adding more different classes of users and goals to the Tor network
-%improves the anonymity for all Tor users~\cite{econymics,usability:weis2006}.
-
-% Adding use classes for countering blocking as well as anonymity has
-% benefits too. Should add something about how providing undetected
-% access to Tor would facilitate people talking to, e.g., govt. authorities
-% about threats to public safety etc. in an environment where Tor use
-% is not otherwise widespread and would make one stand out.
-
-\section{Adversary assumptions}
-\label{sec:adversary}
-
-To design an effective anti-censorship tool, we need a good model for the
-goals and resources of the censors we are evading.  Otherwise, we risk
-spending our effort on keeping the adversaries from doing things they have no
-interest in doing, and thwarting techniques they do not use.
-The history of blocking-resistance designs is littered with conflicting
-assumptions about what adversaries to expect and what problems are
-in the critical path to a solution. Here we describe our best
-understanding of the current situation around the world.
-
-In the traditional security style, we aim to defeat a strong
-attacker---if we can defend against this attacker, we inherit protection
-against weaker attackers as well.  After all, we want a general design
-that will work for citizens of China, Thailand, and other censored
-countries; for
-whistleblowers in firewalled corporate networks; and for people in
-unanticipated oppressive situations. In fact, by designing with
-a variety of adversaries in mind, we can take advantage of the fact that
-adversaries will be in different stages of the arms race at each location,
-so an address blocked in one locale can still be useful in others.
-We focus on an attacker with somewhat complex goals:
-
-\begin{tightlist}
-\item The attacker would like to restrict the flow of certain kinds of
-  information, particularly when this information is seen as embarrassing to
-  those in power (such as information about rights violations or corruption),
-  or when it enables or encourages others to oppose them effectively (such as
-  information about opposition movements or sites that are used to organize
-  protests).
-\item As a second-order effect, censors aim to chill citizens' behavior by
-  creating an impression that their online activities are monitored.
-\item In some cases, censors make a token attempt to block a few sites for
-  obscenity, blasphemy, and so on, but their efforts here are mainly for
-  show. In other cases, they really do try hard to block such content.
-\item Complete blocking (where nobody at all can ever download censored
-  content) is not a
-  goal. Attackers typically recognize that perfect censorship is not only
-  impossible, it is unnecessary: if ``undesirable'' information is known only
-  to a small few, further censoring efforts can be focused elsewhere.
-\item Similarly, the censors do not attempt to shut down or block {\it
-  every} anti-censorship tool---merely the tools that are popular and
-  effective (because these tools impede the censors' information restriction
-  goals) and those tools that are highly visible (thus making the censors
-  look ineffectual to their citizens and their bosses).
-\item Reprisal against {\it most} passive consumers of {\it most} kinds of
-  blocked information is also not a goal, given the broadness of most
-  censorship regimes. This seems borne out by fact.\footnote{So far in places
-  like China, the authorities mainly go after people who publish materials
-  and coordinate organized movements~\cite{mackinnon-personal}.
-  If they find that a
-  user happens to be reading a site that should be blocked, the typical
-  response is simply to block the site. Of course, even with an encrypted
-  connection, the adversary may be able to distinguish readers from
-  publishers by observing whether Alice is mostly downloading bytes or mostly
-  uploading them---we discuss this issue more in
-  Section~\ref{subsec:upload-padding}.}
-\item Producers and distributors of targeted information are in much
-  greater danger than consumers; the attacker would like to not only block
-  their work, but identify them for reprisal.
-\item The censors (or their governments) would like to have a working, useful
-  Internet. There are economic, political, and social factors that prevent
-  them from ``censoring'' the Internet by outlawing it entirely, or by
-  blocking access to all but a tiny list of sites.
-  Nevertheless, the censors {\it are} willing to block innocuous content
-  (like the bulk of a newspaper's reporting) in order to censor other content
-  distributed through the same channels (like that newspaper's coverage of
-  the censored country).
-\end{tightlist}
-
-We assume there are three main technical network attacks in use by censors
-currently~\cite{clayton:pet2006}:
-
-\begin{tightlist}
-\item Block a destination or type of traffic by automatically searching for
-  certain strings or patterns in TCP packets.  Offending packets can be
-  dropped, or can trigger a response like closing the
-  connection.
-\item Block certain IP addresses or destination ports at a
-  firewall or other routing control point.
-\item Intercept DNS requests and give bogus responses for certain
-  destination hostnames.
-\end{tightlist}
-
-We assume the network firewall has limited CPU and memory per
-connection~\cite{clayton:pet2006}.  Against an adversary who could carefully
-examine the contents of every packet and correlate the packets in every
-stream on the network, we would need some stronger mechanism such as
-steganography, which introduces its own
-problems~\cite{active-wardens,tcpstego}.  But we make a ``weak
-steganography'' assumption here: to remain unblocked, it is necessary to
-remain unobservable only by computational resources on par with a modern
-router, firewall, proxy, or IDS.
-
-We assume that while various different regimes can coordinate and share
-notes, there will be a time lag between one attacker learning how to overcome
-a facet of our design and other attackers picking it up.  (The most common
-vector of transmission seems to be commercial providers of censorship tools:
-once a provider adds a feature to meet one country's needs or requests, the
-feature is available to all of the provider's customers.)  Conversely, we
-assume that insider attacks become a higher risk only after the early stages
-of network development, once the system has reached a certain level of
-success and visibility.
-
-We do not assume that government-level attackers are always uniform
-across the country. For example, users of different ISPs in China
-experience different censorship policies and mechanisms~\cite{china-ccs07}.
-%there is no single centralized place in China
-%that coordinates its specific censorship decisions and steps.
-
-We assume that the attacker may be able to use political and economic
-resources to secure the cooperation of extraterritorial or multinational
-corporations and entities in investigating information sources.
-For example, the censors can threaten the service providers of
-troublesome blogs with economic reprisals if they do not reveal the
-authors' identities.
-
-We assume that our users have control over their hardware and
-software---they don't have any spyware installed, there are no
-cameras watching their screens, etc. Unfortunately, in many situations
-these threats are real~\cite{zuckerman-threatmodels}; yet
-software-based security systems like ours are poorly equipped to handle
-a user who is entirely observed and controlled by the adversary. See
-Section~\ref{subsec:cafes-and-livecds} for more discussion of what little
-we can do about this issue.
-
-Similarly, we assume that the user will be able to fetch a genuine
-version of Tor, rather than one supplied by the adversary; see
-Section~\ref{subsec:trust-chain} for discussion on helping the user
-confirm that he has a genuine version and that he can connect to the
-real Tor network.
-
-\section{Adapting the current Tor design to anti-censorship}
-\label{sec:current-tor}
-
-Tor is popular and sees a lot of use---it's the largest anonymity
-network of its kind, and has
-attracted more than 1500 volunteer-operated routers from around the
-world.  Tor protects each user by routing their traffic through a multiply
-encrypted ``circuit'' built of a few randomly selected relay, each of which
-can remove only a single layer of encryption.  Each relay sees only the step
-before it and the step after it in the circuit, and so no single relay can
-learn the connection between a user and her chosen communication partners.
-In this section, we examine some of the reasons why Tor has become popular,
-with particular emphasis to how we can take advantage of these properties
-for a blocking-resistance design.
-
-Tor aims to provide three security properties:
-\begin{tightlist}
-\item 1. A local network attacker can't learn, or influence, your
-destination.
-\item 2. No single router in the Tor network can link you to your
-destination.
-\item 3. The destination, or somebody watching the destination,
-can't learn your location.
-\end{tightlist}
-
-For blocking-resistance, we care most clearly about the first
-property. But as the arms race progresses, the second property
-will become important---for example, to discourage an adversary
-from volunteering a relay in order to learn that Alice is reading
-or posting to certain websites. The third property helps keep users safe from
-collaborating websites: consider websites and other Internet services 
-that have been pressured
-recently into revealing the identity of bloggers
-%~\cite{arrested-bloggers}
-or treating clients differently depending on their network
-location~\cite{netauth}.
-%~\cite{google-geolocation}.
-
-The Tor design provides other features as well that are not typically
-present in manual or ad hoc circumvention techniques.
-
-First, Tor has a well-analyzed and well-understood way to distribute
-information about relay.
-Tor directory authorities automatically aggregate, test,
-and publish signed summaries of the available Tor routers. Tor clients
-can fetch these summaries to learn which routers are available and
-which routers are suitable for their needs. Directory information is cached
-throughout the Tor network, so once clients have bootstrapped they never
-need to interact with the authorities directly. (To tolerate a minority
-of compromised directory authorities, we use a threshold trust scheme---
-see Section~\ref{subsec:trust-chain} for details.)
-
-Second, the list of directory authorities is not hard-wired.
-Clients use the default authorities if no others are specified,
-but it's easy to start a separate (or even overlapping) Tor network just
-by running a different set of authorities and convincing users to prefer
-a modified client. For example, we could launch a distinct Tor network
-inside China; some users could even use an aggregate network made up of
-both the main network and the China network. (But we should not be too
-quick to create other Tor networks---part of Tor's anonymity comes from
-users behaving like other users, and there are many unsolved anonymity
-questions if different users know about different pieces of the network.)
-
-Third, in addition to automatically learning from the chosen directories
-which Tor routers are available and working, Tor takes care of building
-paths through the network and rebuilding them as needed. So the user
-never has to know how paths are chosen, never has to manually pick
-working proxies, and so on. More generally, at its core the Tor protocol
-is simply a tool that can build paths given a set of routers. Tor is
-quite flexible about how it learns about the routers and how it chooses
-the paths. Harvard's Blossom project~\cite{blossom-thesis} makes this
-flexibility more concrete: Blossom makes use of Tor not for its security
-properties but for its reachability properties. It runs a separate set
-of directory authorities, its own set of Tor routers (called the Blossom
-network), and uses Tor's flexible path-building to let users view Internet
-resources from any point in the Blossom network.
-
-Fourth, Tor separates the role of \emph{internal relay} from the
-role of \emph{exit relay}. That is, some volunteers choose just to relay
-traffic between Tor users and Tor routers, and others choose to also allow
-connections to external Internet resources. Because we don't force all
-volunteers to play both roles, we end up with more relays. This increased
-diversity in turn is what gives Tor its security: the more options the
-user has for her first hop, and the more options she has for her last hop,
-the less likely it is that a given attacker will be watching both ends
-of her circuit~\cite{tor-design}. As a bonus, because our design attracts
-more internal relays that want to help out but don't want to deal with
-being an exit relay, we end up providing more options for the first
-hop---the one most critical to being able to reach the Tor network.
-
-Fifth, Tor is sustainable. Zero-Knowledge Systems offered the commercial
-but now defunct Freedom Network~\cite{freedom21-security}, a design with
-security comparable to Tor's, but its funding model relied on collecting
-money from users to pay relay operators. Modern commercial proxy systems
-similarly
-need to keep collecting money to support their infrastructure. On the
-other hand, Tor has built a self-sustaining community of volunteers who
-donate their time and resources. This community trust is rooted in Tor's
-open design: we tell the world exactly how Tor works, and we provide all
-the source code. Users can decide for themselves, or pay any security
-expert to decide, whether it is safe to use. Further, Tor's modularity
-as described above, along with its open license, mean that its impact
-will continue to grow.
-
-Sixth, Tor has an established user base of hundreds of
-thousands of people from around the world. This diversity of
-users contributes to sustainability as above: Tor is used by
-ordinary citizens, activists, corporations, law enforcement, and
-even government and military users,
-%\footnote{\url{https://www.torproject.org/overview}}
-and they can
-only achieve their security goals by blending together in the same
-network~\cite{econymics,usability:weis2006}. This user base also provides
-something else: hundreds of thousands of different and often-changing
-addresses that we can leverage for our blocking-resistance design.
-
-Finally and perhaps most importantly, Tor provides anonymity and prevents any
-single relay from linking users to their communication partners.  Despite
-initial appearances, {\it distributed-trust anonymity is critical for
-anti-censorship efforts}.  If any single relay can expose dissident bloggers
-or compile a list of users' behavior, the censors can profitably compromise
-that relay's operator, perhaps by applying economic pressure to their
-employers,
-breaking into their computer, pressuring their family (if they have relatives
-in the censored area), or so on.  Furthermore, in designs where any relay can
-expose its users, the censors can spread suspicion that they are running some
-of the relays and use this belief to chill use of the network.
-
-We discuss and adapt these components further in
-Section~\ref{sec:bridges}. But first we examine the strengths and
-weaknesses of other blocking-resistance approaches, so we can expand
-our repertoire of building blocks and ideas.
-
-\section{Current proxy solutions}
-\label{sec:related}
-
-Relay-based blocking-resistance schemes generally have two main
-components: a relay component and a discovery component. The relay part
-encompasses the process of establishing a connection, sending traffic
-back and forth, and so on---everything that's done once the user knows
-where she's going to connect. Discovery is the step before that: the
-process of finding one or more usable relays.
-
-For example, we can divide the pieces of Tor in the previous section
-into the process of building paths and sending
-traffic over them (relay) and the process of learning from the directory
-authorities about what routers are available (discovery).  With this
-distinction
-in mind, we now examine several categories of relay-based schemes.
-
-\subsection{Centrally-controlled shared proxies}
-
-Existing commercial anonymity solutions (like Anonymizer.com) are based
-on a set of single-hop proxies. In these systems, each user connects to
-a single proxy, which then relays traffic between the user and her
-destination. These public proxy
-systems are typically characterized by two features: they control and
-operate the proxies centrally, and many different users get assigned
-to each proxy.
-
-In terms of the relay component, single proxies provide weak security
-compared to systems that distribute trust over multiple relays, since a
-compromised proxy can trivially observe all of its users' actions, and
-an eavesdropper only needs to watch a single proxy to perform timing
-correlation attacks against all its users' traffic and thus learn where
-everyone is connecting. Worse, all users
-need to trust the proxy company to have good security itself as well as
-to not reveal user activities.
-
-On the other hand, single-hop proxies are easier to deploy, and they
-can provide better performance than distributed-trust designs like Tor,
-since traffic only goes through one relay. They're also more convenient
-from the user's perspective---since users entirely trust the proxy,
-they can just use their web browser directly.
-
-Whether public proxy schemes are more or less scalable than Tor is
-still up for debate: commercial anonymity systems can use some of their
-revenue to provision more bandwidth as they grow, whereas volunteer-based
-anonymity systems can attract thousands of fast relays to spread the load.
-
-The discovery piece can take several forms. Most commercial anonymous
-proxies have one or a handful of commonly known websites, and their users
-log in to those websites and relay their traffic through them. When
-these websites get blocked (generally soon after the company becomes
-popular), if the company cares about users in the blocked areas, they
-start renting lots of disparate IP addresses and rotating through them
-as they get blocked. They notify their users of new addresses (by email,
-for example). It's an arms race, since attackers can sign up to receive the
-email too, but operators have one nice trick available to them: because they
-have a list of paying subscribers, they can notify certain subscribers
-about updates earlier than others.
-
-Access control systems on the proxy let them provide service only to
-users with certain characteristics, such as paying customers or people
-from certain IP address ranges.
-
-Discovery in the face of a government-level firewall is a complex and
-unsolved
-topic, and we're stuck in this same arms race ourselves; we explore it
-in more detail in Section~\ref{sec:discovery}. But first we examine the
-other end of the spectrum---getting volunteers to run the proxies,
-and telling only a few people about each proxy.
-
-\subsection{Independent personal proxies}
-
-Personal proxies such as Circumventor~\cite{circumventor} and
-CGIProxy~\cite{cgiproxy} use the same technology as the public ones as
-far as the relay component goes, but they use a different strategy for
-discovery. Rather than managing a few centralized proxies and constantly
-getting new addresses for them as the old addresses are blocked, they
-aim to have a large number of entirely independent proxies, each managing
-its own (much smaller) set of users.
-
-As the Circumventor site explains, ``You don't
-actually install the Circumventor \emph{on} the computer that is blocked
-from accessing Web sites. You, or a friend of yours, has to install the
-Circumventor on some \emph{other} machine which is not censored.''
-
-This tactic has great advantages in terms of blocking-resistance---recall
-our assumption in Section~\ref{sec:adversary} that the attention
-a system attracts from the attacker is proportional to its number of
-users and level of publicity. If each proxy only has a few users, and
-there is no central list of proxies, most of them will never get noticed by
-the censors.
-
-On the other hand, there's a huge scalability question that so far has
-prevented these schemes from being widely useful: how does the fellow
-in China find a person in Ohio who will run a Circumventor for him? In
-some cases he may know and trust some people on the outside, but in many
-cases he's just out of luck. Just as hard, how does a new volunteer in
-Ohio find a person in China who needs it?
-
-% another key feature of a proxy run by your uncle is that you
-% self-censor, so you're unlikely to bring abuse complaints onto
-% your uncle. self-censoring clearly has a downside too, though.
-
-This challenge leads to a hybrid design---centrally-distributed
-personal proxies---which we will investigate in more detail in
-Section~\ref{sec:discovery}.
-
-\subsection{Open proxies}
-
-Yet another currently used approach to bypassing firewalls is to locate
-open and misconfigured proxies on the Internet. A quick Google search
-for ``open proxy list'' yields a wide variety of freely available lists
-of HTTP, HTTPS, and SOCKS proxies. Many small companies have sprung up
-providing more refined lists to paying customers.
-
-There are some downsides to using these open proxies though. First,
-the proxies are of widely varying quality in terms of bandwidth and
-stability, and many of them are entirely unreachable. Second, unlike
-networks of volunteers like Tor, the legality of routing traffic through
-these proxies is questionable: it's widely believed that most of them
-don't realize what they're offering, and probably wouldn't allow it if
-they realized. Third, in many cases the connection to the proxy is
-unencrypted, so firewalls that filter based on keywords in IP packets
-will not be hindered. Fourth, in many countries (including China), the
-firewall authorities hunt for open proxies as well, to preemptively
-block them. And last, many users are suspicious that some
-open proxies are a little \emph{too} convenient: are they run by the
-adversary, in which case they get to monitor all the user's requests
-just as single-hop proxies can?
-
-A distributed-trust design like Tor resolves each of these issues for
-the relay component, but a constantly changing set of thousands of open
-relays is clearly a useful idea for a discovery component. For example,
-users might be able to make use of these proxies to bootstrap their
-first introduction into the Tor network.
-
-\subsection{Blocking resistance and JAP}
-
-K\"{o}psell and Hilling's Blocking Resistance
-design~\cite{koepsell:wpes2004} is probably
-the closest related work, and is the starting point for the design in this
-paper.  In this design, the JAP anonymity system~\cite{web-mix} is used
-as a base instead of Tor.  Volunteers operate a large number of access
-points that relay traffic to the core JAP
-network, which in turn anonymizes users' traffic.  The software to run these
-relays is, as in our design, included in the JAP client software and enabled
-only when the user decides to enable it.  Discovery is handled with a
-CAPTCHA-based mechanism; users prove that they aren't an automated process,
-and are given the address of an access point.  (The problem of a determined
-attacker with enough manpower to launch many requests and enumerate all the
-access points is not considered in depth.)  There is also some suggestion
-that information about access points could spread through existing social
-networks.
-
-\subsection{Infranet}
-
-The Infranet design~\cite{infranet} uses one-hop relays to deliver web
-content, but disguises its communications as ordinary HTTP traffic.  Requests
-are split into multiple requests for URLs on the relay, which then encodes
-its responses in the content it returns.  The relay needs to be an actual
-website with plausible content and a number of URLs which the user might want
-to access---if the Infranet software produced its own cover content, it would
-be far easier for censors to identify.  To keep the censors from noticing
-that cover content changes depending on what data is embedded, Infranet needs
-the cover content to have an innocuous reason for changing frequently: the
-paper recommends watermarked images and webcams.
-
-The attacker and relay operators in Infranet's threat model are significantly
-different than in ours.  Unlike our attacker, Infranet's censor can't be
-bypassed with encrypted traffic (presumably because the censor blocks
-encrypted traffic, or at least considers it suspicious), and has more
-computational resources to devote to each connection than ours (so it can
-notice subtle patterns over time).  Unlike our bridge operators, Infranet's
-operators (and users) have more bandwidth to spare; the overhead in typical
-steganography schemes is far higher than Tor's.
-
-The Infranet design does not include a discovery element.  Discovery,
-however, is a critical point: if whatever mechanism allows users to learn
-about relays also allows the censor to do so, he can trivially discover and
-block their addresses, even if the steganography would prevent mere traffic
-observation from revealing the relays' addresses.
-
-\subsection{RST-evasion and other packet-level tricks}
-
-In their analysis of China's firewall's content-based blocking, Clayton,
-Murdoch and Watson discovered that rather than blocking all packets in a TCP
-streams once a forbidden word was noticed, the firewall was simply forging
-RST packets to make the communicating parties believe that the connection was
-closed~\cite{clayton:pet2006}. They proposed altering operating systems
-to ignore forged RST packets. This approach might work in some cases, but
-in practice it appears that many firewalls start filtering by IP address
-once a sufficient number of RST packets have been sent.
-
-Other packet-level responses to filtering include splitting
-sensitive words across multiple TCP packets, so that the censors'
-firewalls can't notice them without performing expensive stream
-reconstruction~\cite{ptacek98insertion}. This technique relies on the
-same insight as our weak steganography assumption.
-
-%\subsection{Internal caching networks}
-
-%Freenet~\cite{freenet-pets00} is an anonymous peer-to-peer data store.
-%Analyzing Freenet's security can be difficult, as its design is in flux as
-%new discovery and routing mechanisms are proposed, and no complete
-%specification has (to our knowledge) been written.  Freenet servers relay
-%requests for specific content (indexed by a digest of the content)
-%``toward'' the server that hosts it, and then cache the content as it
-%follows the same path back to
-%the requesting user.  If Freenet's routing mechanism is successful in
-%allowing nodes to learn about each other and route correctly even as some
-%node-to-node links are blocked by firewalls, then users inside censored areas
-%can ask a local Freenet server for a piece of content, and get an answer
-%without having to connect out of the country at all.  Of course, operators of
-%servers inside the censored area can still be targeted, and the addresses of
-%external servers can still be blocked.
-
-%\subsection{Skype}
-
-%The popular Skype voice-over-IP software uses multiple techniques to tolerate
-%restrictive networks, some of which allow it to continue operating in the
-%presence of censorship.  By switching ports and using encryption, Skype
-%attempts to resist trivial blocking and content filtering.  Even if no
-%encryption were used, it would still be expensive to scan all voice
-%traffic for sensitive words.  Also, most current keyloggers are unable to
-%store voice traffic.  Nevertheless, Skype can still be blocked, especially at
-%its central login server.
-
-%*sjmurdoch* "we consider the login server to be the only central component in
-%the Skype p2p network."
-%*sjmurdoch* http://www1.cs.columbia.edu/~salman/publications/skype1_4.pdf
-%-> *sjmurdoch* ok. what is the login server's role?
-%-> *sjmurdoch* and do you need to reach it directly to use skype?
-%*sjmurdoch* It checks the username and password
-%*sjmurdoch* It is necessary in the current implementation, but I don't know if
-%it is a fundemental limitation of the architecture
-
-\subsection{Tor itself}
-
-And last, we include Tor itself in the list of current solutions
-to firewalls. Tens of thousands of people use Tor from countries that
-routinely filter their Internet. Tor's website has been blocked in most
-of them. But why hasn't the Tor network been blocked yet?
-
-We have several theories. The first is the most straightforward: tens of
-thousands of people are simply too few to matter. It may help that Tor is
-perceived to be for experts only, and thus not worth attention yet. The
-more subtle variant on this theory is that we've positioned Tor in the
-public eye as a tool for retaining civil liberties in more free countries,
-so perhaps blocking authorities don't view it as a threat. (We revisit
-this idea when we consider whether and how to publicize a Tor variant
-that improves blocking-resistance---see Section~\ref{subsec:publicity}
-for more discussion.)
-
-The broader explanation is that the maintenance of most government-level
-filters is aimed at stopping widespread information flow and appearing to be
-in control, not by the impossible goal of blocking all possible ways to bypass
-censorship. Censors realize that there will always
-be ways for a few people to get around the firewall, and as long as Tor
-has not publically threatened their control, they see no urgent need to
-block it yet.
-
-We should recognize that we're \emph{already} in the arms race. These
-constraints can give us insight into the priorities and capabilities of
-our various attackers.
-
-\section{The relay component of our blocking-resistant design}
-\label{sec:bridges}
-
-Section~\ref{sec:current-tor} describes many reasons why Tor is
-well-suited as a building block in our context, but several changes will
-allow the design to resist blocking better. The most critical changes are
-to get more relay addresses, and to distribute them to users differently.
-
-%We need to address three problems:
-%- adapting the relay component of Tor so it resists blocking better.
-%- Discovery.
-%- Tor's network fingerprint.
-
-%Here we describe the new pieces we need to add to the current Tor design.
-
-\subsection{Bridge relays}
-
-Today, Tor relays operate on a few thousand distinct IP addresses;
-an adversary
-could enumerate and block them all with little trouble.  To provide a
-means of ingress to the network, we need a larger set of entry points, most
-of which an adversary won't be able to enumerate easily.  Fortunately, we
-have such a set: the Tor users.
-
-Hundreds of thousands of people around the world use Tor. We can leverage
-our already self-selected user base to produce a list of thousands of
-frequently-changing IP addresses. Specifically, we can give them a little
-button in the GUI that says ``Tor for Freedom'', and users who click
-the button will turn into \emph{bridge relays} (or just \emph{bridges}
-for short). They can rate limit relayed connections to 10 KB/s (almost
-nothing for a broadband user in a free country, but plenty for a user
-who otherwise has no access at all), and since they are just relaying
-bytes back and forth between blocked users and the main Tor network, they
-won't need to make any external connections to Internet sites. Because
-of this separation of roles, and because we're making use of software
-that the volunteers have already installed for their own use, we expect
-our scheme to attract and maintain more volunteers than previous schemes.
-
-As usual, there are new anonymity and security implications from running a
-bridge relay, particularly from letting people relay traffic through your
-Tor client; but we leave this discussion for Section~\ref{sec:security}.
-
-%...need to outline instructions for a Tor config that will publish
-%to an alternate directory authority, and for controller commands
-%that will do this cleanly.
-
-\subsection{The bridge directory authority}
-
-How do the bridge relays advertise their existence to the world? We
-introduce a second new component of the design: a specialized directory
-authority that aggregates and tracks bridges. Bridge relays periodically
-publish relay descriptors (summaries of their keys, locations, etc,
-signed by their long-term identity key), just like the relays in the
-``main'' Tor network, but in this case they publish them only to the
-bridge directory authorities.
-
-The main difference between bridge authorities and the directory
-authorities for the main Tor network is that the main authorities provide
-a list of every known relay, but the bridge authorities only give
-out a relay descriptor if you already know its identity key. That is,
-you can keep up-to-date on a bridge's location and other information
-once you know about it, but you can't just grab a list of all the bridges.
-
-The identity key, IP address, and directory port for each bridge
-authority ship by default with the Tor software, so the bridge relays
-can be confident they're publishing to the right location, and the
-blocked users can establish an encrypted authenticated channel. See
-Section~\ref{subsec:trust-chain} for more discussion of the public key
-infrastructure and trust chain.
-
-Bridges use Tor to publish their descriptors privately and securely,
-so even an attacker monitoring the bridge directory authority's network
-can't make a list of all the addresses contacting the authority.
-Bridges may publish to only a subset of the
-authorities, to limit the potential impact of an authority compromise.
-
-
-%\subsection{A simple matter of engineering}
-%
-%Although we've described bridges and bridge authorities in simple terms
-%above, some design modifications and features are needed in the Tor
-%codebase to add them. We describe the four main changes here.
-%
-%Firstly, we need to get smarter about rate limiting:
-%Bandwidth classes
-%
-%Secondly, while users can in fact configure which directory authorities
-%they use, we need to add a new type of directory authority and teach
-%bridges to fetch directory information from the main authorities while
-%publishing relay descriptors to the bridge authorities. We're most of
-%the way there, since we can already specify attributes for directory
-%authorities:
-%add a separate flag named ``blocking''.
-%
-%Thirdly, need to build paths using bridges as the first
-%hop. One more hole in the non-clique assumption.
-%
-%Lastly, since bridge authorities don't answer full network statuses,
-%we need to add a new way for users to learn the current status for a
-%single relay or a small set of relays---to answer such questions as
-%``is it running?'' or ``is it behaving correctly?'' We describe in
-%Section~\ref{subsec:enclave-dirs} a way for the bridge authority to
-%publish this information without resorting to signing each answer
-%individually.
-
-\subsection{Putting them together}
-\label{subsec:relay-together}
-
-If a blocked user knows the identity keys of a set of bridge relays, and
-he has correct address information for at least one of them, he can use
-that one to make a secure connection to the bridge authority and update
-his knowledge about the other bridge relays. He can also use it to make
-secure connections to the main Tor network and directory authorities, so he
-can build circuits and connect to the rest of the Internet. All of these
-updates happen in the background: from the blocked user's perspective,
-he just accesses the Internet via his Tor client like always.
-
-So now we've reduced the problem from how to circumvent the firewall
-for all transactions (and how to know that the pages you get have not
-been modified by the local attacker) to how to learn about a working
-bridge relay.
-
-There's another catch though. We need to make sure that the network
-traffic we generate by simply connecting to a bridge relay doesn't stand
-out too much.
-
-%The following section describes ways to bootstrap knowledge of your first
-%bridge relay, and ways to maintain connectivity once you know a few
-%bridge relays.
-
-% (See Section~\ref{subsec:first-bridge} for a discussion
-%of exactly what information is sufficient to characterize a bridge relay.)
-
-
-
-\section{Hiding Tor's network fingerprint}
-\label{sec:network-fingerprint}
-\label{subsec:enclave-dirs}
-
-Currently, Tor uses two protocols for its network communications. The
-main protocol uses TLS for encrypted and authenticated communication
-between Tor instances. The second protocol is standard HTTP, used for
-fetching directory information. All Tor relays listen on their ``ORPort''
-for TLS connections, and some of them opt to listen on their ``DirPort''
-as well, to serve directory information. Tor relays choose whatever port
-numbers they like; the relay descriptor they publish to the directory
-tells users where to connect.
-
-One format for communicating address information about a bridge relay is
-its IP address and DirPort. From there, the user can ask the bridge's
-directory cache for an up-to-date copy of its relay descriptor, and
-learn its current circuit keys, its ORPort, and so on.
-
-However, connecting directly to the directory cache involves a plaintext
-HTTP request. A censor could create a network fingerprint (known as a
-\emph{signature} in the intrusion detection field) for the request
-and/or its response, thus preventing these connections. To resolve this
-vulnerability, we've modified the Tor protocol so that users can connect
-to the directory cache via the main Tor port---they establish a TLS
-connection with the bridge as normal, and then send a special ``begindir''
-relay command to establish an internal connection to its directory cache.
-
-Therefore a better way to summarize a bridge's address is by its IP
-address and ORPort, so all communications between the client and the
-bridge will use ordinary TLS. But there are other details that need
-more investigation.
-
-What port should bridges pick for their ORPort? We currently recommend
-that they listen on port 443 (the default HTTPS port) if they want to
-be most useful, because clients behind standard firewalls will have
-the best chance to reach them. Is this the best choice in all cases,
-or should we encourage some fraction of them pick random ports, or other
-ports commonly permitted through firewalls like 53 (DNS) or 110
-(POP)?  Or perhaps we should use other ports where TLS traffic is
-expected, like 993 (IMAPS) or 995 (POP3S).  We need more research on our
-potential users, and their current and anticipated firewall restrictions.
-
-Furthermore, we need to look at the specifics of Tor's TLS handshake.
-Right now Tor uses some predictable strings in its TLS handshakes. For
-example, it sets the X.509 organizationName field to ``Tor'', and it puts
-the Tor relay's nickname in the certificate's commonName field. We
-should tweak the handshake protocol so it doesn't rely on any unusual details
-in the certificate, yet it remains secure; the certificate itself
-should be made to resemble an ordinary HTTPS certificate.  We should also try
-to make our advertised cipher-suites closer to what an ordinary web server
-would support.
-
-Tor's TLS handshake uses two-certificate chains: one certificate
-contains the self-signed identity key for
-the router, and the second contains a current TLS key, signed by the
-identity key. We use these to authenticate that we're talking to the right
-router, and to limit the impact of TLS-key exposure.  Most (though far from
-all) consumer-oriented HTTPS services provide only a single certificate.
-These extra certificates may help identify Tor's TLS handshake; instead,
-bridges should consider using only a single TLS key certificate signed by
-their identity key, and providing the full value of the identity key in an
-early handshake cell.  More significantly, Tor currently has all clients
-present certificates, so that clients are harder to distinguish from relays.
-But in a blocking-resistance environment, clients should not present
-certificates at all.
-
-Last, what if the adversary starts observing the network traffic even
-more closely? Even if our TLS handshake looks innocent, our traffic timing
-and volume still look different than a user making a secure web connection
-to his bank. The same techniques used in the growing trend to build tools
-to recognize encrypted Bittorrent traffic
-%~\cite{bt-traffic-shaping}
-could be used to identify Tor communication and recognize bridge
-relays. Rather than trying to look like encrypted web traffic, we may be
-better off trying to blend with some other encrypted network protocol. The
-first step is to compare typical network behavior for a Tor client to
-typical network behavior for various other protocols. This statistical
-cat-and-mouse game is made more complex by the fact that Tor transports a
-variety of protocols, and we'll want to automatically handle web browsing
-differently from, say, instant messaging.
-
-% Tor cells are 512 bytes each. So TLS records will be roughly
-% multiples of this size? How bad is this? -RD
-% Look at ``Inferring the Source of Encrypted HTTP Connections''
-% by Marc Liberatore and Brian Neil Levine (CCS 2006)
-% They substantially flesh out the numbers for the  web fingerprinting
-% attack. -PS
-% Yes, but I meant detecting the fingerprint of Tor traffic itself, not
-% learning what websites we're going to. I wouldn't be surprised to
-% learn that these are related problems, but it's not obvious to me. -RD
-
-\subsection{Identity keys as part of addressing information}
-\label{subsec:id-address}
-
-We have described a way for the blocked user to bootstrap into the
-network once he knows the IP address and ORPort of a bridge. What about
-local spoofing attacks? That is, since we never learned an identity
-key fingerprint for the bridge, a local attacker could intercept our
-connection and pretend to be the bridge we had in mind. It turns out
-that giving false information isn't that bad---since the Tor client
-ships with trusted keys for the bridge directory authority and the Tor
-network directory authorities, the user can learn whether he's being
-given a real connection to the bridge authorities or not. (After all,
-if the adversary intercepts every connection the user makes and gives
-him a bad connection each time, there's nothing we can do.)
-
-What about anonymity-breaking attacks from observing traffic, if the
-blocked user doesn't start out knowing the identity key of his intended
-bridge? The vulnerabilities aren't so bad in this case either---the
-adversary could do similar attacks just by monitoring the network
-traffic.
-% cue paper by steven and george
-
-Once the Tor client has fetched the bridge's relay descriptor, it should
-remember the identity key fingerprint for that bridge relay. Thus if
-the bridge relay moves to a new IP address, the client can query the
-bridge directory authority to look up a fresh relay descriptor using
-this fingerprint.
-
-So we've shown that it's \emph{possible} to bootstrap into the network
-just by learning the IP address and ORPort of a bridge, but are there
-situations where it's more convenient or more secure to learn the bridge's
-identity fingerprint as well as instead, while bootstrapping? We keep
-that question in mind as we next investigate bootstrapping and discovery.
-
-\section{Discovering working bridge relays}
-\label{sec:discovery}
-
-Tor's modular design means that we can develop a better relay component
-independently of developing the discovery component. This modularity's
-great promise is that we can pick any discovery approach we like; but the
-unfortunate fact is that we have no magic bullet for discovery. We're
-in the same arms race as all the other designs we described in
-Section~\ref{sec:related}.
-
-In this section we describe a variety of approaches to adding discovery
-components for our design.
-
-\subsection{Bootstrapping: finding your first bridge.}
-\label{subsec:first-bridge}
-
-In Section~\ref{subsec:relay-together}, we showed that a user who knows
-a working bridge address can use it to reach the bridge authority and
-to stay connected to the Tor network. But how do new users reach the
-bridge authority in the first place? After all, the bridge authority
-will be one of the first addresses that a censor blocks.
-
-First, we should recognize that most government firewalls are not
-perfect. That is, they may allow connections to Google cache or some
-open proxy servers, or they let file-sharing traffic, Skype, instant
-messaging, or World-of-Warcraft connections through. Different users will
-have different mechanisms for bypassing the firewall initially. Second,
-we should remember that most people don't operate in a vacuum; users will
-hopefully know other people who are in other situations or have other
-resources available. In the rest of this section we develop a toolkit
-of different options and mechanisms, so that we can enable users in a
-diverse set of contexts to bootstrap into the system.
-
-(For users who can't use any of these techniques, hopefully they know
-a friend who can---for example, perhaps the friend already knows some
-bridge relay addresses. If they can't get around it at all, then we
-can't help them---they should go meet more people or learn more about
-the technology running the firewall in their area.)
-
-By deploying all the schemes in the toolkit at once, we let bridges and
-blocked users employ the discovery approach that is most appropriate
-for their situation.
-
-\subsection{Independent bridges, no central discovery}
-
-The first design is simply to have no centralized discovery component at
-all. Volunteers run bridges, and we assume they have some blocked users
-in mind and communicate their address information to them out-of-band
-(for example, through Gmail). This design allows for small personal
-bridges that have only one or a handful of users in mind, but it can
-also support an entire community of users. For example, Citizen Lab's
-upcoming Psiphon single-hop proxy tool~\cite{psiphon} plans to use this
-\emph{social network} approach as its discovery component.
-
-There are several ways to do bootstrapping in this design. In the simple
-case, the operator of the bridge informs each chosen user about his
-bridge's address information and/or keys. A different approach involves
-blocked users introducing new blocked users to the bridges they know.
-That is, somebody in the blocked area can pass along a bridge's address to
-somebody else they trust. This scheme brings in appealing but complex game
-theoretic properties: the blocked user making the decision has an incentive
-only to delegate to trustworthy people, since an adversary who learns
-the bridge's address and filters it makes it unavailable for both of them.
-Also, delegating known bridges to members of your social network can be
-dangerous: an the adversary who can learn who knows which bridges may
-be able to reconstruct the social network.
-
-Note that a central set of bridge directory authorities can still be
-compatible with a decentralized discovery process. That is, how users
-first learn about bridges is entirely up to the bridges, but the process
-of fetching up-to-date descriptors for them can still proceed as described
-in Section~\ref{sec:bridges}. Of course, creating a central place that
-knows about all the bridges may not be smart, especially if every other
-piece of the system is decentralized. Further, if a user only knows
-about one bridge and he loses track of it, it may be quite a hassle to
-reach the bridge authority. We address these concerns next.
-
-\subsection{Families of bridges, no central discovery}
-
-Because the blocked users are running our software too, we have many
-opportunities to improve usability or robustness. Our second design builds
-on the first by encouraging volunteers to run several bridges at once
-(or coordinate with other bridge volunteers), such that some
-of the bridges are likely to be available at any given time.
-
-The blocked user's Tor client would periodically fetch an updated set of
-recommended bridges from any of the working bridges. Now the client can
-learn new additions to the bridge pool, and can expire abandoned bridges
-or bridges that the adversary has blocked, without the user ever needing
-to care. To simplify maintenance of the community's bridge pool, each
-community could run its own bridge directory authority---reachable via
-the available bridges, and also mirrored at each bridge.
-
-\subsection{Public bridges with central discovery}
-
-What about people who want to volunteer as bridges but don't know any
-suitable blocked users? What about people who are blocked but don't
-know anybody on the outside? Here we describe how to make use of these
-\emph{public bridges} in a way that still makes it hard for the attacker
-to learn all of them.
-
-The basic idea is to divide public bridges into a set of pools based on
-identity key. Each pool corresponds to a \emph{distribution strategy}:
-an approach to distributing its bridge addresses to users. Each strategy
-is designed to exercise a different scarce resource or property of
-the user.
-
-How do we divide bridges between these strategy pools such that they're
-evenly distributed and the allocation is hard to influence or predict,
-but also in a way that's amenable to creating more strategies later
-on without reshuffling all the pools? We assign a given bridge
-to a strategy pool by hashing the bridge's identity key along with a
-secret that only the bridge authority knows: the first $n$ bits of this
-hash dictate the strategy pool number, where $n$ is a parameter that
-describes how many strategy pools we want at this point. We choose $n=3$
-to start, so we divide bridges between 8 pools; but as we later invent
-new distribution strategies, we can increment $n$ to split the 8 into
-16. Since a bridge can't predict the next bit in its hash, it can't
-anticipate which identity key will correspond to a certain new pool
-when the pools are split. Further, since the bridge authority doesn't
-provide any feedback to the bridge about which strategy pool it's in,
-an adversary who signs up bridges with the goal of filling a certain
-pool~\cite{casc-rep} will be hindered.
-
-% This algorithm is not ideal. When we split pools, each existing
-% pool is cut in half, where half the bridges remain with the
-% old distribution policy, and half will be under what the new one
-% is. So the new distribution policy inherits a bunch of blocked
-% bridges if the old policy was too loose, or a bunch of unblocked
-% bridges if its policy was still secure. -RD
-%
-% I think it should be more chordlike.
-% Bridges are allocated to wherever on the ring which is divided
-% into arcs (buckets).
-% If a bucket gets too full, you can just split it.
-% More on this below. -PFS
-
-The first distribution strategy (used for the first pool) publishes bridge
-addresses in a time-release fashion. The bridge authority divides the
-available bridges into partitions, and each partition is deterministically
-available only in certain time windows. That is, over the course of a
-given time slot (say, an hour), each requester is given a random bridge
-from within that partition. When the next time slot arrives, a new set
-of bridges from the pool are available for discovery. Thus some bridge
-address is always available when a new
-user arrives, but to learn about all bridges the attacker needs to fetch
-all new addresses at every new time slot. By varying the length of the
-time slots, we can make it harder for the attacker to guess when to check
-back. We expect these bridges will be the first to be blocked, but they'll
-help the system bootstrap until they \emph{do} get blocked. Further,
-remember that we're dealing with different blocking regimes around the
-world that will progress at different rates---so this pool will still
-be useful to some users even as the arms races progress.
-
-The second distribution strategy publishes bridge addresses based on the IP
-address of the requesting user. Specifically, the bridge authority will
-divide the available bridges in the pool into a bunch of partitions
-(as in the first distribution scheme), hash the requester's IP address
-with a secret of its own (as in the above allocation scheme for creating
-pools), and give the requester a random bridge from the appropriate
-partition. To raise the bar, we should discard the last octet of the
-IP address before inputting it to the hash function, so an attacker
-who only controls a single ``/24'' network only counts as one user. A
-large attacker like China will still be able to control many addresses,
-but the hassle of establishing connections from each network (or spoofing
-TCP connections) may still slow them down. Similarly, as a special case,
-we should treat IP addresses that are Tor exit nodes as all being on
-the same network.
-
-The third strategy combines the time-based and location-based
-strategies to further constrain and rate-limit the available bridge
-addresses. Specifically, the bridge address provided in a given time
-slot to a given network location is deterministic within the partition,
-rather than chosen randomly each time from the partition. Thus, repeated
-requests during that time slot from a given network are given the same
-bridge address as the first request.
-
-The fourth strategy is based on Circumventor's discovery strategy.
-The Circumventor project, realizing that its adoption will remain limited
-if it has no central coordination mechanism, has started a mailing list to
-distribute new proxy addresses every few days. From experimentation it
-seems they have concluded that sending updates every three or four days
-is sufficient to stay ahead of the current attackers.
-
-The fifth strategy provides an alternative approach to a mailing list:
-users provide an email address and receive an automated response
-listing an available bridge address. We could limit one response per
-email address. To further rate limit queries, we could require a CAPTCHA
-solution
-%~\cite{captcha}
-in each case too. In fact, we wouldn't need to
-implement the CAPTCHA on our side: if we only deliver bridge addresses
-to Yahoo or GMail addresses, we can leverage the rate-limiting schemes
-that other parties already impose for account creation.
-
-The sixth strategy ties in the social network design with public
-bridges and a reputation system. We pick some seeds---trusted people in
-blocked areas---and give them each a few dozen bridge addresses and a few
-\emph{delegation tokens}. We run a website next to the bridge authority,
-where users can log in (they connect via Tor, and they don't need to
-provide actual identities, just persistent pseudonyms). Users can delegate
-trust to other people they know by giving them a token, which can be
-exchanged for a new account on the website. Accounts in ``good standing''
-then accrue new bridge addresses and new tokens. As usual, reputation
-schemes bring in a host of new complexities~\cite{rep-anon}: how do we
-decide that an account is in good standing? We could tie reputation
-to whether the bridges they're told about have been blocked---see
-Section~\ref{subsec:geoip} below for initial thoughts on how to discover
-whether bridges have been blocked. We could track reputation between
-accounts (if you delegate to somebody who screws up, it impacts you too),
-or we could use blinded delegation tokens~\cite{chaum-blind} to prevent
-the website from mapping the seeds' social network. We put off deeper
-discussion of the social network reputation strategy for future work.
-
-Pools seven and eight are held in reserve, in case our currently deployed
-tricks all fail at once and the adversary blocks all those bridges---so
-we can adapt and move to new approaches quickly, and have some bridges
-immediately available for the new schemes. New strategies might be based
-on some other scarce resource, such as relaying traffic for others or
-other proof of energy spent. (We might also worry about the incentives
-for bridges that sign up and get allocated to the reserve pools: will they
-be unhappy that they're not being used? But this is a transient problem:
-if Tor users are bridges by default, nobody will mind not being used yet.
-See also Section~\ref{subsec:incentives}.)
-
-%Is it useful to load balance which bridges are handed out? The above
-%pool concept makes some bridges wildly popular and others less so.
-%But I guess that's the point.
-
-\subsection{Public bridges with coordinated discovery}
-
-We presented the above discovery strategies in the context of a single
-bridge directory authority, but in practice we will want to distribute the
-operations over several bridge authorities---a single point of failure
-or attack is a bad move. The first answer is to run several independent
-bridge directory authorities, and bridges gravitate to one based on
-their identity key. The better answer would be some federation of bridge
-authorities that work together to provide redundancy but don't introduce
-new security issues. We could even imagine designs where the bridge
-authorities have encrypted versions of the bridge's relay descriptors,
-and the users learn a decryption key that they keep private when they
-first hear about the bridge---this way the bridge authorities would not
-be able to learn the IP address of the bridges.
-
-We leave this design question for future work.
-
-\subsection{Assessing whether bridges are useful}
-
-Learning whether a bridge is useful is important in the bridge authority's
-decision to include it in responses to blocked users. For example, if
-we end up with a list of thousands of bridges and only a few dozen of
-them are reachable right now, most blocked users will not end up knowing
-about working bridges.
-
-There are three components for assessing how useful a bridge is. First,
-is it reachable from the public Internet? Second, what proportion of
-the time is it available? Third, is it blocked in certain jurisdictions?
-
-The first component can be tested just as we test reachability of
-ordinary Tor relays. Specifically, the bridges do a self-test---connect
-to themselves via the Tor network---before they are willing to
-publish their descriptor, to make sure they're not obviously broken or
-misconfigured. Once the bridges publish, the bridge authority also tests
-reachability to make sure they're not confused or outright lying.
-
-The second component can be measured and tracked by the bridge authority.
-By doing periodic reachability tests, we can get a sense of how often the
-bridge is available. More complex tests will involve bandwidth-intensive
-checks to force the bridge to commit resources in order to be counted as
-available. We need to evaluate how the relationship of uptime percentage
-should weigh into our choice of which bridges to advertise. We leave
-this to future work.
-
-The third component is perhaps the trickiest: with many different
-adversaries out there, how do we keep track of which adversaries have
-blocked which bridges, and how do we learn about new blocks as they
-occur? We examine this problem next.
-
-\subsection{How do we know if a bridge relay has been blocked?}
-\label{subsec:geoip}
-
-There are two main mechanisms for testing whether bridges are reachable
-from inside each blocked area: active testing via users, and passive
-testing via bridges.
-
-In the case of active testing, certain users inside each area
-sign up as testing relays. The bridge authorities can then use a
-Blossom-like~\cite{blossom-thesis} system to build circuits through them
-to each bridge and see if it can establish the connection. But how do
-we pick the users? If we ask random users to do the testing (or if we
-solicit volunteers from the users), the adversary should sign up so he
-can enumerate the bridges we test. Indeed, even if we hand-select our
-testers, the adversary might still discover their location and monitor
-their network activity to learn bridge addresses.
-
-Another answer is not to measure directly, but rather let the bridges
-report whether they're being used.
-%If they periodically report to their
-%bridge directory authority how much use they're seeing, perhaps the
-%authority can make smart decisions from there.
-Specifically, bridges should install a GeoIP database such as the public
-IP-To-Country list~\cite{ip-to-country}, and then periodically report to the
-bridge authorities which countries they're seeing use from. This data
-would help us track which countries are making use of the bridge design,
-and can also let us learn about new steps the adversary has taken in
-the arms race. (The compressed GeoIP database is only several hundred
-kilobytes, and we could even automate the update process by serving it
-from the bridge authorities.)
-More analysis of this passive reachability
-testing design is needed to resolve its many edge cases: for example,
-if a bridge stops seeing use from a certain area, does that mean the
-bridge is blocked or does that mean those users are asleep?
-
-There are many more problems with the general concept of detecting whether
-bridges are blocked. First, different zones of the Internet are blocked
-in different ways, and the actual firewall jurisdictions do not match
-country borders. Our bridge scheme could help us map out the topology
-of the censored Internet, but this is a huge task. More generally,
-if a bridge relay isn't reachable, is that because of a network block
-somewhere, because of a problem at the bridge relay, or just a temporary
-outage somewhere in between? And last, an attacker could poison our
-bridge database by signing up already-blocked bridges. In this case,
-if we're stingy giving out bridge addresses, users in that country won't
-learn working bridges.
-
-All of these issues are made more complex when we try to integrate this
-testing into our social network reputation system above.
-Since in that case we punish or reward users based on whether bridges
-get blocked, the adversary has new attacks to trick or bog down the
-reputation tracking. Indeed, the bridge authority doesn't even know
-what zone the blocked user is in, so do we blame him for any possible
-censored zone, or what?
-
-Clearly more analysis is required. The eventual solution will probably
-involve a combination of passive measurement via GeoIP and active
-measurement from trusted testers.  More generally, we can use the passive
-feedback mechanism to track usage of the bridge network as a whole---which
-would let us respond to attacks and adapt the design, and it would also
-let the general public track the progress of the project.
-
-%Worry: the adversary could choose not to block bridges but just record
-%connections to them. So be it, I guess.
-
-\subsection{Advantages of deploying all solutions at once}
-
-For once, we're not in the position of the defender: we don't have to
-defend against every possible filtering scheme; we just have to defend
-against at least one. On the flip side, the attacker is forced to guess
-how to allocate his resources to defend against each of these discovery
-strategies. So by deploying all of our strategies at once, we not only
-increase our chances of finding one that the adversary has difficulty
-blocking, but we actually make \emph{all} of the strategies more robust
-in the face of an adversary with limited resources.
-
-%\subsection{Remaining unsorted notes}
-
-%In the first subsection we describe how to find a first bridge.
-
-%Going to be an arms race. Need a bag of tricks. Hard to say
-%which ones will work. Don't spend them all at once.
-
-%Some techniques are sufficient to get us an IP address and a port,
-%and others can get us IP:port:key. Lay out some plausible options
-%for how users can bootstrap into learning their first bridge.
-
-%\section{The account / reputation system}
-%\section{Social networks with directory-side support}
-%\label{sec:accounts}
-
-%One answer is to measure based on whether the bridge addresses
-%we give it end up blocked. But how do we decide if they get blocked?
-
-%Perhaps each bridge should be known by a single bridge directory
-%authority. This makes it easier to trace which users have learned about
-%it, so easier to blame or reward. It also makes things more brittle,
-%since loss of that authority means its bridges aren't advertised until
-%they switch, and means its bridge users are sad too.
-%(Need a slick hash algorithm that will map our identity key to a
-%bridge authority, in a way that's sticky even when we add bridge
-%directory authorities, but isn't sticky when our authority goes
-%away. Does this exist?)
-%   [[Ian says: What about just using something like hash table chaining?
-%   This should work, so long as the client knows which authorities currently
-%   exist.]]
-
-%\subsection{Discovery based on social networks}
-
-%A token that can be exchanged at the bridge authority (assuming you
-%can reach it) for a new bridge address.
-
-%The account server runs as a Tor controller for the bridge authority.
-
-%Users can establish reputations, perhaps based on social network
-%connectivity, perhaps based on not getting their bridge relays blocked,
-
-%Probably the most critical lesson learned in past work on reputation
-%systems in privacy-oriented environments~\cite{rep-anon} is the need for
-%verifiable transactions. That is, the entity computing and advertising
-%reputations for participants needs to actually learn in a convincing
-%way that a given transaction was successful or unsuccessful.
-
-%(Lesson from designing reputation systems~\cite{rep-anon}: easy to
-%reward good behavior, hard to punish bad behavior.
-
-\section{Security considerations}
-\label{sec:security}
-
-\subsection{Possession of Tor in oppressed areas}
-
-Many people speculate that installing and using a Tor client in areas with
-particularly extreme firewalls is a high risk---and the risk increases
-as the firewall gets more restrictive. This notion certainly has merit, but
-there's
-a counter pressure as well: as the firewall gets more restrictive, more
-ordinary people behind it end up using Tor for more mainstream activities,
-such as learning
-about Wall Street prices or looking at pictures of women's ankles. So
-as the restrictive firewall pushes up the number of Tor users, the
-``typical'' Tor user becomes more mainstream, and therefore mere
-use or possession of the Tor software is not so surprising.
-
-It's hard to say which of these pressures will ultimately win out,
-but we should keep both sides of the issue in mind.
-
-%Nick, want to rewrite/elaborate on this section?
-
-%Ian suggests: 
-%  Possession of Tor: this is totally of-the-cuff, and there are lots of
-% security issues to think about, but what about an ActiveX version of
-% Tor?  The magic you learn (as opposed to a bridge address) is a plain
-% old HTTPS server, which feeds you an ActiveX applet pre-configured with
-% some bridge address (possibly on the same machine).  For bonus points,
-% somehow arrange that (a) the applet is signed in some way the user can
-% reliably check, but (b) don't end up with anything like an incriminating
-% long-term cert stored on the user's computer.  This may be marginally
-% useful in some Internet-cafe situations as well, though (a) is even
-% harder to get right there.
-
-
-\subsection{Observers can tell who is publishing and who is reading}
-\label{subsec:upload-padding}
-
-Tor encrypts traffic on the local network, and it obscures the eventual
-destination of the communication, but it doesn't do much to obscure the
-traffic volume. In particular, a user publishing a home video will have a
-different network fingerprint than a user reading an online news article.
-Based on our assumption in Section~\ref{sec:adversary} that users who
-publish material are in more danger, should we work to improve Tor's
-security in this situation?
-
-In the general case this is an extremely challenging task:
-effective \emph{end-to-end traffic confirmation attacks}
-are known where the adversary observes the origin and the
-destination of traffic and confirms that they are part of the
-same communication~\cite{danezis:pet2004,e2e-traffic}. Related are
-\emph{website fingerprinting attacks}, where the adversary downloads
-a few hundred popular websites, makes a set of "fingerprints" for each
-site, and then observes the target Tor client's traffic to look for
-a match~\cite{pet05-bissias,defensive-dropping}. But can we do better
-against a limited adversary who just does coarse-grained sweeps looking
-for unusually prolific publishers?
-
-One answer is for bridge users to automatically send bursts of padding
-traffic periodically. (This traffic can be implemented in terms of
-long-range drop cells, which are already part of the Tor specification.)
-Of course, convincingly simulating an actual human publishing interesting
-content is a difficult arms race, but it may be worthwhile to at least
-start the race. More research remains.
-
-\subsection{Anonymity effects from acting as a bridge relay}
-
-Against some attacks, relaying traffic for others can improve
-anonymity. The simplest example is an attacker who owns a small number
-of Tor relays. He will see a connection from the bridge, but he won't
-be able to know whether the connection originated there or was relayed
-from somebody else. More generally, the mere uncertainty of whether the
-traffic originated from that user may be helpful.
-
-There are some cases where it doesn't seem to help: if an attacker can
-watch all of the bridge's incoming and outgoing traffic, then it's easy
-to learn which connections were relayed and which started there. (In this
-case he still doesn't know the final destinations unless he is watching
-them too, but in this case bridges are no better off than if they were
-an ordinary client.)
-
-There are also some potential downsides to running a bridge. First, while
-we try to make it hard to enumerate all bridges, it's still possible to
-learn about some of them, and for some people just the fact that they're
-running one might signal to an attacker that they place a higher value
-on their anonymity. Second, there are some more esoteric attacks on Tor
-relays that are not as well-understood or well-tested---for example, an
-attacker may be able to ``observe'' whether the bridge is sending traffic
-even if he can't actually watch its network, by relaying traffic through
-it and noticing changes in traffic timing~\cite{attack-tor-oak05}. On
-the other hand, it may be that limiting the bandwidth the bridge is
-willing to relay will allow this sort of attacker to determine if it's
-being used as a bridge but not easily learn whether it is adding traffic
-of its own.
-
-We also need to examine how entry guards fit in. Entry guards
-(a small set of nodes that are always used for the first
-step in a circuit) help protect against certain attacks
-where the attacker runs a few Tor relays and waits for
-the user to choose these relays as the beginning and end of her
-circuit\footnote{\url{http://wiki.noreply.org/noreply/TheOnionRouter/TorFAQ#EntryGuards}}.
-If the blocked user doesn't use the bridge's entry guards, then the bridge
-doesn't gain as much cover benefit. On the other hand, what design changes
-are needed for the blocked user to use the bridge's entry guards without
-learning what they are (this seems hard), and even if we solve that,
-do they then need to use the guards' guards and so on down the line?
-
-It is an open research question whether the benefits of running a bridge
-outweigh the risks. A lot of the decision rests on which attacks the
-users are most worried about. For most users, we don't think running a
-bridge relay will be that damaging, and it could help quite a bit.
-
-\subsection{Trusting local hardware: Internet cafes and LiveCDs}
-\label{subsec:cafes-and-livecds}
-
-Assuming that users have their own trusted hardware is not
-always reasonable.
-
-For Internet cafe Windows computers that let you attach your own USB key,
-a USB-based Tor image would be smart. There's Torpark, and hopefully
-there will be more thoroughly analyzed and trustworthy options down the
-road. Worries remain about hardware or software keyloggers and other
-spyware, as well as physical surveillance.
-
-If the system lets you boot from a CD or from a USB key, you can gain
-a bit more security by bringing a privacy LiveCD with you. (This
-approach isn't foolproof either of course, since hardware
-keyloggers and physical surveillance are still a worry).
-
-In fact, LiveCDs are also useful if it's your own hardware, since it's
-easier to avoid leaving private data and logs scattered around the
-system.
-
-%\subsection{Forward compatibility and retiring bridge authorities}
-%
-%Eventually we'll want to change the identity key and/or location
-%of a bridge authority. How do we do this mostly cleanly?
-
-\subsection{The trust chain}
-\label{subsec:trust-chain}
-
-Tor's ``public key infrastructure'' provides a chain of trust to
-let users verify that they're actually talking to the right relays.
-There are four pieces to this trust chain.
-
-First, when Tor clients are establishing circuits, at each step
-they demand that the next Tor relay in the path prove knowledge of
-its private key~\cite{tor-design}. This step prevents the first node
-in the path from just spoofing the rest of the path. Second, the
-Tor directory authorities provide a signed list of relays along with
-their public keys---so unless the adversary can control a threshold
-of directory authorities, he can't trick the Tor client into using other
-Tor relays. Third, the location and keys of the directory authorities,
-in turn, is hard-coded in the Tor source code---so as long as the user
-got a genuine version of Tor, he can know that he is using the genuine
-Tor network. And last, the source code and other packages are signed
-with the GPG keys of the Tor developers, so users can confirm that they
-did in fact download a genuine version of Tor.
-
-In the case of blocked users contacting bridges and bridge directory
-authorities, the same logic applies in parallel: the blocked users fetch
-information from both the bridge authorities and the directory authorities
-for the `main' Tor network, and they combine this information locally.
-
-How can a user in an oppressed country know that he has the correct
-key fingerprints for the developers? As with other security systems, it
-ultimately comes down to human interaction. The keys are signed by dozens
-of people around the world, and we have to hope that our users have met
-enough people in the PGP web of trust
-%~\cite{pgp-wot}
-that they can learn
-the correct keys. For users that aren't connected to the global security
-community, though, this question remains a critical weakness.
-
-%\subsection{Security through obscurity: publishing our design}
-
-%Many other schemes like dynaweb use the typical arms race strategy of
-%not publishing their plans. Our goal here is to produce a design---a
-%framework---that can be public and still secure. Where's the tradeoff?
-
-%\section{Performance improvements}
-%\label{sec:performance}
-%
-%\subsection{Fetch relay descriptors just-in-time}
-%
-%I guess we should encourage most places to do this, so blocked
-%users don't stand out.
-%
-%
-%network-status and directory optimizations. caching better. partitioning
-%issues?
-
-\section{Maintaining reachability}
-\label{sec:reachability}
-
-\subsection{How many bridge relays should you know about?}
-
-The strategies described in Section~\ref{sec:discovery} talked about
-learning one bridge address at a time. But if most bridges are ordinary
-Tor users on cable modem or DSL connection, many of them will disappear
-and/or move periodically. How many bridge relays should a blocked user
-know about so that she is likely to have at least one reachable at any
-given point? This is already a challenging problem if we only consider
-natural churn: the best approach is to see what bridges we attract in
-reality and measure their churn. We may also need to factor in a parameter
-for how quickly bridges get discovered and blocked by the attacker;
-we leave this for future work after we have more deployment experience.
-
-A related question is: if the bridge relays change IP addresses
-periodically, how often does the blocked user need to fetch updates in
-order to keep from being cut out of the loop?
-
-Once we have more experience and intuition, we should explore technical
-solutions to this problem too. For example, if the discovery strategies
-give out $k$ bridge addresses rather than a single bridge address, perhaps
-we can improve robustness from the user perspective without significantly
-aiding the adversary. Rather than giving out a new random subset of $k$
-addresses at each point, we could bind them together into \emph{bridge
-families}, so all users that learn about one member of the bridge family
-are told about the rest as well.
-
-This scheme may also help defend against attacks to map the set of
-bridges. That is, if all blocked users learn a random subset of bridges,
-the attacker should learn about a few bridges, monitor the country-level
-firewall for connections to them, then watch those users to see what
-other bridges they use, and repeat. By segmenting the bridge address
-space, we can limit the exposure of other users.
-
-\subsection{Cablemodem users don't usually provide important websites}
-\label{subsec:block-cable}
-
-Another attacker we might be concerned about is that the attacker could
-just block all DSL and cablemodem network addresses, on the theory that
-they don't run any important services anyway. If most of our bridges
-are on these networks, this attack could really hurt.
-
-The first answer is to aim to get volunteers both from traditionally
-``consumer'' networks and also from traditionally ``producer'' networks.
-Since bridges don't need to be Tor exit nodes, as we improve our usability
-it seems quite feasible to get a lot of websites helping out.
-
-The second answer (not as practical) would be to encourage more use of
-consumer networks for popular and useful Internet services. 
-%(But P2P exists;
-%minor websites exist; gaming exists; IM exists; ...)
-
-A related attack we might worry about is based on large countries putting
-economic pressure on companies that want to expand their business. For
-example, what happens if Verizon wants to sell services in China, and
-China pressures Verizon to discourage its users in the free world from
-running bridges?
-
-\subsection{Scanning resistance: making bridges more subtle}
-
-If it's trivial to verify that a given address is operating as a bridge,
-and most bridges run on a predictable port, then it's conceivable our
-attacker could scan the whole Internet looking for bridges. (In fact,
-he can just concentrate on scanning likely networks like cablemodem
-and DSL services---see Section~\ref{subsec:block-cable} above for
-related attacks.) It would be nice to slow down this attack. It would
-be even nicer to make it hard to learn whether we're a bridge without
-first knowing some secret. We call this general property \emph{scanning
-resistance}, and it goes along with normalizing Tor's TLS handshake and
-network fingerprint.
-
-We could provide a password to the blocked user, and she (or her Tor
-client) provides a nonced hash of this password when she connects. We'd
-need to give her an ID key for the bridge too (in addition to the IP
-address and port---see Section~\ref{subsec:id-address}), and wait to
-present the password until we've finished the TLS handshake, else it
-would look unusual. If Alice can authenticate the bridge before she
-tries to send her password, we can resist an adversary who pretends
-to be the bridge and launches a man-in-the-middle attack to learn the
-password. But even if she can't, we still resist against widespread
-scanning.
-
-How should the bridge behave if accessed without the correct
-authorization? Perhaps it should act like an unconfigured HTTPS server
-(``welcome to the default Apache page''), or maybe it should mirror
-and act like common websites, or websites randomly chosen from Google.
-
-We might assume that the attacker can recognize HTTPS connections that
-use self-signed certificates. (This process would be resource-intensive
-but not out of the realm of possibility.) But even in this case, many
-popular websites around the Internet use self-signed or just plain broken
-SSL certificates.
-
-%to unknown servers. It can then attempt to connect to them and block
-%connections to servers that seem suspicious. It may be that password
-%protected web sites will not be suspicious in general, in which case
-%that may be the easiest way to give controlled access to the bridge.
-%If such sites that have no other overt features are automatically
-%blocked when detected, then we may need to be more subtle.
-%Possibilities include serving an innocuous web page if a TLS encrypted
-%request is received without the authorization needed to access the Tor
-%network and only responding to a requested access to the Tor network
-%of proper authentication is given. If an unauthenticated request to
-%access the Tor network is sent, the bridge should respond as if
-%it has received a message it does not understand (as would be the
-%case were it not a bridge).
-
-% Ian suggests a ``socialist millionaires'' protocol here, for something.
-
-% Did we once mention knocking here?  it's a good idea, but we should clarify
-% what we mean.  Ian also notes that knocking itself is very fingerprintable,
-% and we should beware.
-
-\subsection{How to motivate people to run bridge relays}
-\label{subsec:incentives}
-
-One of the traditional ways to get people to run software that benefits
-others is to give them motivation to install it themselves.  An often
-suggested approach is to install it as a stunning screensaver so everybody
-will be pleased to run it. We take a similar approach here, by leveraging
-the fact that these users are already interested in protecting their
-own Internet traffic, so they will install and run the software.
-
-Eventually, we may be able to make all Tor users become bridges if they
-pass their self-reachability tests---the software and installers need
-more work on usability first, but we're making progress.
-
-In the mean time, we can make a snazzy network graph with
-Vidalia\footnote{\url{http://vidalia-project.net/}} that
-emphasizes the connections the bridge user is currently relaying.
-%(Minor
-%anonymity implications, but hey.) (In many cases there won't be much
-%activity, so this may backfire. Or it may be better suited to full-fledged
-%Tor relay.)
-
-% Also consider everybody-a-relay. Many of the scalability questions
-% are easier when you're talking about making everybody a bridge.
-
-%\subsection{What if the clients can't install software?}
-
-%[this section should probably move to the related work section,
-%or just disappear entirely.]
-
-%Bridge users without Tor software
-
-%Bridge relays could always open their socks proxy. This is bad though,
-%first
-%because bridges learn the bridge users' destinations, and second because
-%we've learned that open socks proxies tend to attract abusive users who
-%have no idea they're using Tor.
-
-%Bridges could require passwords in the socks handshake (not supported
-%by most software including Firefox). Or they could run web proxies
-%that require authentication and then pass the requests into Tor. This
-%approach is probably a good way to help bootstrap the Psiphon network,
-%if one of its barriers to deployment is a lack of volunteers willing
-%to exit directly to websites. But it clearly drops some of the nice
-%anonymity and security features Tor provides.
-
-%A hybrid approach where the user gets his anonymity from Tor but his
-%software-less use from a web proxy running on a trusted machine on the
-%free side.
-
-\subsection{Publicity attracts attention}
-\label{subsec:publicity}
-
-Many people working on this field want to publicize the existence
-and extent of censorship concurrently with the deployment of their
-circumvention software. The easy reason for this two-pronged push is
-to attract volunteers for running proxies in their systems; but in many
-cases their main goal is not to focus on getting more users signed up,
-but rather to educate the rest of the world about the
-censorship. The media also tries to do its part by broadcasting the
-existence of each new circumvention system.
-
-But at the same time, this publicity attracts the attention of the
-censors. We can slow down the arms race by not attracting as much
-attention, and just spreading by word of mouth. If our goal is to
-establish a solid social network of bridges and bridge users before
-the adversary gets involved, does this extra attention work to our
-disadvantage?
-
-\subsection{The Tor website: how to get the software}
-
-One of the first censoring attacks against a system like ours is to
-block the website and make the software itself hard to find. Our system
-should work well once the user is running an authentic
-copy of Tor and has found a working bridge, but to get to that point
-we rely on their individual skills and ingenuity.
-
-Right now, most countries that block access to Tor block only the main
-website and leave mirrors and the network itself untouched.
-Falling back on word-of-mouth is always a good last resort, but we should
-also take steps to make sure it's relatively easy for users to get a copy,
-such as publicizing the mirrors more and making copies available through
-other media. We might also mirror the latest version of the software on
-each bridge, so users who hear about an honest bridge can get a good
-copy.
-See Section~\ref{subsec:first-bridge} for more discussion.
-
-% Ian suggests that we have every tor relay distribute a signed copy of the
-% software.
-
-\section{Next Steps}
-\label{sec:conclusion}
-
-Technical solutions won't solve the whole censorship problem. After all,
-the firewalls in places like China are \emph{socially} very
-successful, even if technologies and tricks exist to get around them.
-However, having a strong technical solution is still necessary as one
-important piece of the puzzle.
-
-In this paper, we have shown that Tor provides a great set of building
-blocks to start from. The next steps are to deploy prototype bridges and
-bridge authorities, implement some of the proposed discovery strategies,
-and then observe the system in operation and get more intuition about
-the actual requirements and adversaries we're up against.
-
-\bibliographystyle{plain} \bibliography{tor-design}
-
-%\appendix
-
-%\section{Counting Tor users by country}
-%\label{app:geoip}
-
-\end{document}
-
-
-
-\section{Future designs}
-\label{sec:future}
-
-\subsection{Bridges inside the blocked network too}
-
-Assuming actually crossing the firewall is the risky part of the
-operation, can we have some bridge relays inside the blocked area too,
-and more established users can use them as relays so they don't need to
-communicate over the firewall directly at all? A simple example here is
-to make new blocked users into internal bridges also---so they sign up
-on the bridge authority as part of doing their query, and we give out
-their addresses
-rather than (or along with) the external bridge addresses. This design
-is a lot trickier because it brings in the complexity of whether the
-internal bridges will remain available, can maintain reachability with
-the outside world, etc.
-
-More complex future designs involve operating a separate Tor network
-inside the blocked area, and using \emph{hidden service bridges}---bridges
-that can be accessed by users of the internal Tor network but whose
-addresses are not published or findable, even by these users---to get
-from inside the firewall to the rest of the Internet. But this design
-requires directory authorities to run inside the blocked area too,
-and they would be a fine target to take down the network.
-
-% Hidden services as bridge directory authorities.
-
-
-------------------------------------------
-
-ship geoip db to bridges. they look up users who tls to them in the db,
-and upload a signed list of countries and number-of-users each day. the
-bridge authority aggregates them and publishes stats.
-
-bridge relays have buddies
-they ask a user to test the reachability of their buddy.
-leaks O(1) bridges, but not O(n).
-
-we should not be blockable by ordinary cisco censorship features.
-that is, if they want to block our new design, they will need to
-add a feature to block exactly this.
-strategically speaking, this may come in handy.
-
-Bridges come in clumps of 4 or 8 or whatever. If you know one bridge
-in a clump, the authority will tell you the rest. Now bridges can
-ask users to test reachability of their buddies.
-
-Giving out clumps helps with dynamic IP addresses too. Whether it
-should be 4 or 8 depends on our churn.
-
-the account server. let's call it a database, it doesn't have to
-be a thing that human interacts with.
-
-so how do we reward people for being good?
-
-\subsubsection{Public Bridges with Coordinated Discovery}
-
-****Pretty much this whole subsubsection will probably need to be
-deferred until ``later'' and moved to after end document, but I'm leaving
-it here for now in case useful.******
-
-Rather than be entirely centralized, we can have a coordinated
-collection of bridge authorities, analogous to how Tor network
-directory authorities now work.
-
-Key components
-``Authorities'' will distribute caches of what they know to overlapping
-collections of nodes so that no one node is owned by one authority.
-Also so that it is impossible to DoS info maintained by one authority
-simply by making requests to it.
-
-Where a bridge gets assigned is not predictable by the bridge?
-
-If authorities don't know the IP addresses of the bridges they
-are responsible for, they can't abuse that info (or be attacked for
-having it). But, they also can't, e.g., control being sent massive
-lists of nodes that were never good. This raises another question.
-We generally decry use of IP address for location, etc. but we
-need to do that to limit the introduction of functional but useless
-IP addresses because, e.g., they are in China and the adversary
-owns massive chunks of the IP space there.
-
-We don't want an arbitrary someone to be able to contact the
-authorities and say an IP address is bad because it would be easy
-for an adversary to take down all the suspicious bridges
-even if they provide good cover websites, etc. Only the bridge
-itself and/or the directory authority can declare a bridge blocked
-from somewhere.
-
-
-9. Bridge directories must not simply be a handful of nodes that
-provide the list of bridges. They must flood or otherwise distribute
-information out to other Tor nodes as mirrors. That way it becomes
-difficult for censors to flood the bridge directory authorities with
-requests, effectively denying access for others. But, there's lots of
-churn and a much larger size than Tor directories.  We are forced to
-handle the directory scaling problem here much sooner than for the
-network in general. Authorities can pass their bridge directories
-(and policy info) to some moderate number of unidentified Tor nodes.
-Anyone contacting one of those nodes can get bridge info. the nodes
-must remain somewhat synched to prevent the adversary from abusing,
-e.g., a timed release policy or the distribution to those nodes must
-be resilient even if they are not coordinating.
-
-I think some kind of DHT like scheme would work here. A Tor node is
-assigned a chunk of the directory.  Lookups in the directory should be
-via hashes of keys (fingerprints) and that should determine the Tor
-nodes responsible. Ordinary directories can publish lists of Tor nodes
-responsible for fingerprint ranges.  Clients looking to update info on
-some bridge will make a Tor connection to one of the nodes responsible
-for that address.  Instead of shutting down a circuit after getting
-info on one address, extend it to another that is responsible for that
-address (the node from which you are extending knows you are doing so
-anyway). Keep going.  This way you can amortize the Tor connection.
-
-10. We need some way to give new identity keys out to those who need
-them without letting those get immediately blocked by authorities. One
-way is to give a fingerprint that gets you more fingerprints, as
-already described. These are meted out/updated periodically but allow
-us to keep track of which sources are compromised: if a distribution
-fingerprint repeatedly leads to quickly blocked bridges, it should be
-suspect, dropped, etc. Since we're using hashes, there shouldn't be a
-correlation with bridge directory mirrors, bridges, portions of the
-network observed, etc. It should just be that the authorities know
-about that key that leads to new addresses.
-
-This last point is very much like the issues in the valet nodes paper,
-which is essentially about blocking resistance wrt exiting the Tor network,
-while this paper is concerned with blocking the entering to the Tor network.
-In fact the tickets used to connect to the IPo (Introduction Point),
-could serve as an example, except that instead of authorizing
-a connection to the Hidden Service, it's authorizing the downloading
-of more fingerprints.
-
-Also, the fingerprints can follow the hash(q + '1' + cookie) scheme of
-that paper (where q = hash(PK + salt) gave the q.onion address).  This
-allows us to control and track which fingerprint was causing problems.
-
-Note that, unlike many settings, the reputation problem should not be
-hard here. If a bridge says it is blocked, then it might as well be.
-If an adversary can say that the bridge is blocked wrt
-$\mathit{censor}_i$, then it might as well be, since
-$\mathit{censor}_i$ can presumably then block that bridge if it so
-chooses.
-
-11. How much damage can the adversary do by running nodes in the Tor
-network and watching for bridge nodes connecting to it?  (This is
-analogous to an Introduction Point watching for Valet Nodes connecting
-to it.) What percentage of the network do you need to own to do how
-much damage. Here the entry-guard design comes in helpfully.  So we
-need to have bridges use entry-guards, but (cf. 3 above) not use
-bridges as entry-guards. Here's a serious tradeoff (again akin to the
-ratio of valets to IPos) the more bridges/client the worse the
-anonymity of that client. The fewer bridges/client the worse the 
-blocking resistance of that client.
-
-
-

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doc/design-paper/challenges.tex

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-\documentclass{llncs}
-
-\usepackage{url}
-\usepackage{amsmath}
-\usepackage{epsfig}
-
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-\setlength{\textheight}{8.4in}
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-    }}{\end{list}}
-
-\begin{document}
-
-\title{Challenges in deploying low-latency anonymity (DRAFT)}
-
-\author{Roger Dingledine\inst{1} \and
-Nick Mathewson\inst{1} \and
-Paul Syverson\inst{2}}
-\institute{The Free Haven Project \email{<\{arma,nickm\}@freehaven.net>} \and
-Naval Research Laboratory \email{<syverson@itd.nrl.navy.mil>}}
-
-\maketitle
-\pagestyle{plain}
-
-\begin{abstract}
-  There are many unexpected or unexpectedly difficult obstacles to
-  deploying anonymous communications.  Drawing on our experiences deploying
-  Tor (the second-generation onion routing network), we describe social
-  challenges and technical issues that must be faced
-  in building, deploying, and sustaining a scalable, distributed, low-latency
-  anonymity network.
-\end{abstract}
-
-\section{Introduction}
-% Your network is not practical unless it is sustainable and distributed.
-Anonymous communication is full of surprises.  This paper discusses some
-unexpected challenges arising from our experiences deploying Tor, a
-low-latency general-purpose anonymous communication system.  We will discuss
-some of the difficulties we have experienced and how we have met them (or how
-we plan to meet them, if we know).  We also discuss some less
-troublesome open problems that we must nevertheless eventually address.
-%We will describe both those future challenges that we intend to explore and
-%those that we have decided not to explore and why.
-
-Tor is an overlay network for anonymizing TCP streams over the
-Internet~\cite{tor-design}.  It addresses limitations in earlier Onion
-Routing designs~\cite{or-ih96,or-jsac98,or-discex00,or-pet00} by adding
-perfect forward secrecy, congestion control, directory servers, data
-integrity, configurable exit policies, and location-hidden services using
-rendezvous points.  Tor works on the real-world Internet, requires no special
-privileges or kernel modifications, requires little synchronization or
-coordination between nodes, and provides a reasonable trade-off between
-anonymity, usability, and efficiency.
-
-We deployed the public Tor network in October 2003; since then it has
-grown to over a hundred volunteer-operated nodes
-and as much as 80 megabits of
-average traffic per second.  Tor's research strategy has focused on deploying
-a network to as many users as possible; thus, we have resisted designs that
-would compromise deployability by imposing high resource demands on node
-operators, and designs that would compromise usability by imposing
-unacceptable restrictions on which applications we support.  Although this
-strategy has
-drawbacks (including a weakened threat model, as discussed below), it has
-made it possible for Tor to serve many thousands of users and attract
-funding from diverse sources whose goals range from security on a
-national scale down to individual liberties.
-
-In~\cite{tor-design} we gave an overall view of Tor's
-design and goals.  Here we describe some policy, social, and technical
-issues that we face as we continue deployment.
-Rather than providing complete solutions to every problem, we
-instead lay out the challenges and constraints that we have observed while
-deploying Tor.  In doing so, we aim to provide a research agenda
-of general interest to projects attempting to build
-and deploy practical, usable anonymity networks in the wild.
-
-%While the Tor design paper~\cite{tor-design} gives an overall view its
-%design and goals,
-%this paper describes the policy and technical issues that Tor faces as
-%we continue deployment. Rather than trying to provide complete solutions
-%to every problem here, we lay out the assumptions and constraints
-%that we have observed through deploying Tor in the wild. In doing so, we
-%aim to create a research agenda for others to
-%help in addressing these issues.
-% Section~\ref{sec:what-is-tor} gives an
-%overview of the Tor
-%design and ours goals. Sections~\ref{sec:crossroads-policy}
-%and~\ref{sec:crossroads-design} go on to describe the practical challenges,
-%both policy and technical respectively,
-%that stand in the way of moving
-%from a practical useful network to a practical useful anonymous network.
-
-%\section{What Is Tor}
-\section{Background}
-Here we give a basic overview of the Tor design and its properties, and
-compare Tor to other low-latency anonymity designs.
-
-\subsection{Tor, threat models, and distributed trust}
-\label{sec:what-is-tor}
-
-%Here we give a basic overview of the Tor design and its properties. For
-%details on the design, assumptions, and security arguments, we refer
-%the reader to the Tor design paper~\cite{tor-design}.
-
-Tor provides \emph{forward privacy}, so that users can connect to
-Internet sites without revealing their logical or physical locations
-to those sites or to observers.  It also provides \emph{location-hidden
-services}, so that servers can support authorized users without
-giving an effective vector for physical or online attackers.
-Tor provides these protections even when a portion of its
-infrastructure is compromised.
-
-To connect to a remote server via Tor, the client software learns a signed
-list of Tor nodes from one of several central \emph{directory servers}, and
-incrementally creates a private pathway or \emph{circuit} of encrypted
-connections through authenticated Tor nodes on the network, negotiating a
-separate set of encryption keys for each hop along the circuit.  The circuit
-is extended one node at a time, and each node along the way knows only the
-immediately previous and following nodes in the circuit, so no individual Tor
-node knows the complete path that each fixed-sized data packet (or
-\emph{cell}) will take.
-%Because each node sees no more than one hop in the
-%circuit,
-Thus, neither an eavesdropper nor a compromised node can
-see both the connection's source and destination.  Later requests use a new
-circuit, to complicate long-term linkability between different actions by
-a single user.
-
-Tor also helps servers hide their locations while
-providing services such as web publishing or instant
-messaging.  Using ``rendezvous points'', other Tor users can
-connect to these authenticated hidden services, neither one learning the
-other's network identity.
-
-Tor attempts to anonymize the transport layer, not the application layer.
-This approach is useful for applications such as SSH
-where authenticated communication is desired. However, when anonymity from
-those with whom we communicate is desired,
-application protocols that include personally identifying information need
-additional application-level scrubbing proxies, such as
-Privoxy~\cite{privoxy} for HTTP\@.  Furthermore, Tor does not relay arbitrary
-IP packets; it only anonymizes TCP streams and DNS requests
-%, and only supports
-%connections via SOCKS
-(but see Section~\ref{subsec:tcp-vs-ip}).
-
-Most node operators do not want to allow arbitrary TCP traffic. % to leave
-%their server.
-To address this, Tor provides \emph{exit policies} so
-each exit node can block the IP addresses and ports it is unwilling to allow.
-Tor nodes advertise their exit policies to the directory servers, so that
-clients can tell which nodes will support their connections.
-
-As of January 2005, the Tor network has grown to around a hundred nodes
-on four continents, with a total capacity exceeding 1Gbit/s. Appendix A
-shows a graph of the number of working nodes over time, as well as a
-graph of the number of bytes being handled by the network over time.
-The network is now sufficiently diverse for further development
-and testing; but of course we always encourage new nodes
-to join.
-
-Tor research and development has been funded by ONR and DARPA
-for use in securing government
-communications, and by the Electronic Frontier Foundation for use
-in maintaining civil liberties for ordinary citizens online. The Tor
-protocol is one of the leading choices
-for the anonymizing layer in the European Union's PRIME directive to
-help maintain privacy in Europe.
-The AN.ON project in Germany
-has integrated an independent implementation of the Tor protocol into
-their popular Java Anon Proxy anonymizing client.
-% This wide variety of
-%interests helps maintain both the stability and the security of the
-%network.
-
-\medskip
-\noindent
-{\bf Threat models and design philosophy.}
-The ideal Tor network would be practical, useful and anonymous. When
-trade-offs arise between these properties, Tor's research strategy has been
-to remain useful enough to attract many users,
-and practical enough to support them.  Only subject to these
-constraints do we try to maximize
-anonymity.\footnote{This is not the only possible
-direction in anonymity research: designs exist that provide more anonymity
-than Tor at the expense of significantly increased resource requirements, or
-decreased flexibility in application support (typically because of increased
-latency).  Such research does not typically abandon aspirations toward
-deployability or utility, but instead tries to maximize deployability and
-utility subject to a certain degree of structural anonymity (structural because
-usability and practicality affect usage which affects the actual anonymity
-provided by the network \cite{econymics,back01}).}
-%{We believe that these
-%approaches can be promising and useful, but that by focusing on deploying a
-%usable system in the wild, Tor helps us experiment with the actual parameters
-%of what makes a system ``practical'' for volunteer operators and ``useful''
-%for home users, and helps illuminate undernoticed issues which any deployed
-%volunteer anonymity network will need to address.}
-Because of our strategy, Tor has a weaker threat model than many designs in
-the literature.  In particular, because we
-support interactive communications without impractically expensive padding,
-we fall prey to a variety
-of intra-network~\cite{back01,attack-tor-oak05,flow-correlation04} and
-end-to-end~\cite{danezis:pet2004,SS03} anonymity-breaking attacks.
-
-Tor does not attempt to defend against a global observer.  In general, an
-attacker who can measure both ends of a connection through the Tor network
-% I say 'measure' rather than 'observe', to encompass murdoch-danezis
-% style attacks. -RD
-can correlate the timing and volume of data on that connection as it enters
-and leaves the network, and so link communication partners.
-Known solutions to this attack would seem to require introducing a
-prohibitive degree of traffic padding between the user and the network, or
-introducing an unacceptable degree of latency (but see Section
-\ref{subsec:mid-latency}).  Also, it is not clear that these methods would
-work at all against a minimally active adversary who could introduce timing
-patterns or additional traffic.  Thus, Tor only attempts to defend against
-external observers who cannot observe both sides of a user's connections.
-
-
-Against internal attackers who sign up Tor nodes, the situation is more
-complicated.  In the simplest case, if an adversary has compromised $c$ of
-$n$ nodes on the Tor network, then the adversary will be able to compromise
-a random circuit with probability $\frac{c^2}{n^2}$ (since the circuit
-initiator chooses hops randomly).  But there are
-complicating factors:
-(1)~If the user continues to build random circuits over time, an adversary
-  is pretty certain to see a statistical sample of the user's traffic, and
-  thereby can build an increasingly accurate profile of her behavior.  (See
-  Section~\ref{subsec:helper-nodes} for possible solutions.)
-(2)~An adversary who controls a popular service outside the Tor network
-  can be certain to observe all connections to that service; he
-  can therefore trace connections to that service with probability
-  $\frac{c}{n}$.
-(3)~Users do not in fact choose nodes with uniform probability; they
-  favor nodes with high bandwidth or uptime, and exit nodes that
-  permit connections to their favorite services.
-(See Section~\ref{subsec:routing-zones} for discussion of larger
-adversaries and our dispersal goals.)
-
-% I'm trying to make this paragraph work without reference to the
-% analysis/confirmation distinction, which we haven't actually introduced
-% yet, and which we realize isn't very stable anyway.  Also, I don't want to
-% deprecate these attacks if we can't demonstrate that they don't work, since
-% in case they *do* turn out to work well against Tor, we'll look pretty
-% foolish. -NM
-More powerful attacks may exist. In \cite{hintz-pet02} it was
-shown that an attacker who can catalog data volumes of popular
-responder destinations (say, websites with consistent data volumes) may not
-need to
-observe both ends of a stream to learn source-destination links for those
-responders.
-Similarly, latencies of going through various routes can be
-cataloged~\cite{back01} to connect endpoints.
-% Also, \cite{kesdogan:pet2002} takes the
-% attack another level further, to narrow down where you could be
-% based on an intersection attack on subpages in a website. -RD
-It has not yet been shown whether these attacks will succeed or fail
-in the presence of the variability and volume quantization introduced by the
-Tor network, but it seems likely that these factors will at best delay
-rather than halt the attacks in the cases where they succeed.
-Along similar lines, the same paper suggests a ``clogging
-attack'' in which the throughput on a circuit is observed to slow
-down when an adversary clogs the right nodes with his own traffic.
-To determine the nodes in a circuit this attack requires the ability
-to continuously monitor the traffic exiting the network on a circuit
-that is up long enough to probe all network nodes in binary fashion.
-% Though somewhat related, clogging and interference are really different
-% attacks with different assumptions about adversary distribution and
-% capabilities as well as different techniques. -pfs
-Murdoch and Danezis~\cite{attack-tor-oak05} show a practical
-interference attack against portions of
-the fifty node Tor network as deployed in mid 2004.
-An outside attacker can actively trace a circuit through the Tor network
-by observing changes in the latency of his
-own traffic sent through various Tor nodes. This can be done
-simultaneously at multiple nodes; however, like clogging,
-this attack only reveals
-the Tor nodes in the circuit, not initiator and responder addresses,
-so it is still necessary to discover the endpoints to complete an
-effective attack. Increasing the size and diversity of the Tor network may
-help counter these attacks.
-
-%discuss $\frac{c^2}{n^2}$, except how in practice the chance of owning
-%the last hop is not $c/n$ since that doesn't take the destination (website)
-%into account. so in cases where the adversary does not also control the
-%final destination we're in good shape, but if he *does* then we'd be better
-%off with a system that lets each hop choose a path.
-%
-%Isn't it more accurate to say ``If the adversary _always_ controls the final
-% dest, we would be just as well off with such as system.'' ?  If not, why
-% not? -nm
-% Sure. In fact, better off, since they seem to scale more easily. -rd
-
-%Murdoch and Danezis describe an attack
-%\cite{attack-tor-oak05} that lets an attacker determine the nodes used
-%in a circuit; yet s/he cannot identify the initiator or responder,
-%e.g., client or web server, through this attack. So the endpoints
-%remain secure, which is the goal. It is conceivable that an
-%adversary could attack or set up observation of all connections
-%to an arbitrary Tor node in only a few minutes.  If such an adversary
-%were to exist, s/he could use this probing to remotely identify a node
-%for further attack.  Of more likely immediate practical concern
-%an adversary with active access to the responder traffic
-%wants to keep a circuit alive long enough to attack an identified
-%node. Thus it is important to prevent the responding end of the circuit
-%from keeping it open indefinitely. 
-%Also, someone could identify nodes in this way and if in their
-%jurisdiction, immediately get a subpoena (if they even need one)
-%telling the node operator(s) that she must retain all the active
-%circuit data she now has.
-%Further, the enclave model, which had previously looked to be the most
-%generally secure, seems particularly threatened by this attack, since
-%it identifies endpoints when they're also nodes in the Tor network:
-%see Section~\ref{subsec:helper-nodes} for discussion of some ways to
-%address this issue.
-
-\medskip
-\noindent
-{\bf Distributed trust.}
-In practice Tor's threat model is based on
-dispersal and diversity.
-Our defense lies in having a diverse enough set of nodes
-to prevent most real-world
-adversaries from being in the right places to attack users,
-by distributing each transaction
-over several nodes in the network.  This ``distributed trust'' approach
-means the Tor network can be safely operated and used by a wide variety
-of mutually distrustful users, providing sustainability and security.
-%than some previous attempts at anonymizing networks.
-
-No organization can achieve this security on its own.  If a single
-corporation or government agency were to build a private network to
-protect its operations, any connections entering or leaving that network
-would be obviously linkable to the controlling organization.  The members
-and operations of that agency would be easier, not harder, to distinguish.
-
-Instead, to protect our networks from traffic analysis, we must
-collaboratively blend the traffic from many organizations and private
-citizens, so that an eavesdropper can't tell which users are which,
-and who is looking for what information.  %By bringing more users onto
-%the network, all users become more secure~\cite{econymics}.
-%[XXX I feel uncomfortable saying this last sentence now. -RD]
-%[So, I took it out. I think we can do without it. -PFS]
-The Tor network has a broad range of users, including ordinary citizens
-concerned about their privacy, corporations
-who don't want to reveal information to their competitors, and law
-enforcement and government intelligence agencies who need
-to do operations on the Internet without being noticed.
-Naturally, organizations will not want to depend on others for their
-security.  If most participating providers are reliable, Tor tolerates
-some hostile infiltration of the network.  For maximum protection,
-the Tor design includes an enclave approach that lets data be encrypted
-(and authenticated) end-to-end, so high-sensitivity users can be sure it
-hasn't been read or modified.  This even works for Internet services that
-don't have built-in encryption and authentication, such as unencrypted
-HTTP or chat, and it requires no modification of those services.
-
-\subsection{Related work}
-Tor differs from other deployed systems for traffic analysis resistance
-in its security and flexibility.  Mix networks such as
-Mixmaster~\cite{mixmaster-spec} or its successor Mixminion~\cite{minion-design}
-gain the highest degrees of anonymity at the expense of introducing highly
-variable delays, making them unsuitable for applications such as web
-browsing.  Commercial single-hop
-proxies~\cite{anonymizer} can provide good performance, but
-a single compromise can expose all users' traffic, and a single-point
-eavesdropper can perform traffic analysis on the entire network.
-%Also, their proprietary implementations place any infrastructure that
-%depends on these single-hop solutions at the mercy of their providers'
-%financial health as well as network security.
-The Java
-Anon Proxy~\cite{web-mix} provides similar functionality to Tor but
-handles only web browsing rather than all TCP\@.
-%Some peer-to-peer file-sharing overlay networks such as
-%Freenet~\cite{freenet} and Mute~\cite{mute}
-The Freedom 
-network from Zero-Knowledge Systems~\cite{freedom21-security}
-was even more flexible than Tor in
-transporting arbitrary IP packets, and also supported
-pseudonymity in addition to anonymity; but it had
-a different approach to sustainability (collecting money from users
-and paying ISPs to run Tor nodes), and was eventually shut down due to financial
-load.  Finally, %potentially more scalable
-% [I had added 'potentially' because the scalability of these designs
-% is not established, and I am uncomfortable making the
-% bolder unmodified assertion. Roger took 'potentially' out.
-% Here's an attempt at more neutral wording -pfs]
-peer-to-peer designs that are intended to be more scalable,
-for example Tarzan~\cite{tarzan:ccs02} and
-MorphMix~\cite{morphmix:fc04}, have been proposed in the literature but
-have not been fielded. These systems differ somewhat
-in threat model and presumably practical resistance to threats.
-Note that MorphMix differs from Tor only in
-node discovery and circuit setup; so Tor's architecture is flexible
-enough to contain a MorphMix experiment.
-We direct the interested reader
-to~\cite{tor-design} for a more in-depth review of related work.
-
-%XXXX six-four. crowds. i2p.
-
-%XXXX
-%have a serious discussion of morphmix's assumptions, since they would
-%seem to be the direct competition. in fact tor is a flexible architecture
-%that would encompass morphmix, and they're nearly identical except for
-%path selection and node discovery. and the trust system morphmix has
-%seems overkill (and/or insecure) based on the threat model we've picked.
-% this para should probably move to the scalability / directory system. -RD
-% Nope. Cut for space, except for small comment added above -PFS
-
-\section{Social challenges}
-
-Many of the issues the Tor project needs to address extend beyond
-system design and technology development. In particular, the
-Tor project's \emph{image} with respect to its users and the rest of
-the Internet impacts the security it can provide.
-With this image issue in mind, this section discusses the Tor user base and
-Tor's interaction with other services on the Internet.
-
-\subsection{Communicating security}
-
-Usability for anonymity systems
-contributes to their security, because usability
-affects the possible anonymity set~\cite{econymics,back01}.
-Conversely, an unusable system attracts few users and thus can't provide
-much anonymity.
-
-This phenomenon has a second-order effect: knowing this, users should
-choose which anonymity system to use based in part on how usable
-and secure
-\emph{others} will find it, in order to get the protection of a larger
-anonymity set. Thus we might supplement the adage ``usability is a security
-parameter''~\cite{back01} with a new one: ``perceived usability is a
-security parameter.'' From here we can better understand the effects
-of publicity on security: the more convincing your
-advertising, the more likely people will believe you have users, and thus
-the more users you will attract. Perversely, over-hyped systems (if they
-are not too broken) may be a better choice than modestly promoted ones,
-if the hype attracts more users~\cite{usability-network-effect}.
-
-So it follows that we should come up with ways to accurately communicate
-the available security levels to the user, so she can make informed
-decisions. JAP aims to do this by including a
-comforting `anonymity meter' dial in the software's graphical interface,
-giving the user an impression of the level of protection for her current
-traffic.
-
-However, there's a catch. For users to share the same anonymity set,
-they need to act like each other. An attacker who can distinguish
-a given user's traffic from the rest of the traffic will not be
-distracted by anonymity set size. For high-latency systems like
-Mixminion, where the threat model is based on mixing messages with each
-other, there's an arms race between end-to-end statistical attacks and
-counter-strategies~\cite{statistical-disclosure,minion-design,e2e-traffic,trickle02}.
-But for low-latency systems like Tor, end-to-end \emph{traffic
-correlation} attacks~\cite{danezis:pet2004,defensive-dropping,SS03}
-allow an attacker who can observe both ends of a communication
-to correlate packet timing and volume, quickly linking
-the initiator to her destination.
-
-Like Tor, the current JAP implementation does not pad connections
-apart from using small fixed-size cells for transport. In fact,
-JAP's cascade-based network topology may be more vulnerable to these
-attacks, because its network has fewer edges. JAP was born out of
-the ISDN mix design~\cite{isdn-mixes}, where padding made sense because
-every user had a fixed bandwidth allocation and altering the timing
-pattern of packets could be immediately detected. But in its current context
-as an Internet web anonymizer, adding sufficient padding to JAP
-would probably be prohibitively expensive and ineffective against a
-minimally active attacker.\footnote{Even if JAP could
-fund higher-capacity nodes indefinitely, our experience
-suggests that many users would not accept the increased per-user
-bandwidth requirements, leading to an overall much smaller user base. But
-see Section~\ref{subsec:mid-latency}.} Therefore, since under this threat
-model the number of concurrent users does not seem to have much impact
-on the anonymity provided, we suggest that JAP's anonymity meter is not
-accurately communicating security levels to its users.
-
-On the other hand, while the number of active concurrent users may not
-matter as much as we'd like, it still helps to have some other users
-on the network. We investigate this issue next.
-
-\subsection{Reputability and perceived social value}
-Another factor impacting the network's security is its reputability:
-the perception of its social value based on its current user base. If Alice is
-the only user who has ever downloaded the software, it might be socially
-accepted, but she's not getting much anonymity. Add a thousand
-activists, and she's anonymous, but everyone thinks she's an activist too.
-Add a thousand
-diverse citizens (cancer survivors, privacy enthusiasts, and so on)
-and now she's harder to profile.
-
-Furthermore, the network's reputability affects its operator base: more people
-are willing to run a service if they believe it will be used by human rights
-workers than if they believe it will be used exclusively for disreputable
-ends.  This effect becomes stronger if node operators themselves think they
-will be associated with their users' disreputable ends.
-
-So the more cancer survivors on Tor, the better for the human rights
-activists. The more malicious hackers, the worse for the normal users. Thus,
-reputability is an anonymity issue for two reasons. First, it impacts
-the sustainability of the network: a network that's always about to be
-shut down has difficulty attracting and keeping adequate nodes.
-Second, a disreputable network is more vulnerable to legal and
-political attacks, since it will attract fewer supporters.
-
-While people therefore have an incentive for the network to be used for
-``more reputable'' activities than their own, there are still trade-offs
-involved when it comes to anonymity. To follow the above example, a
-network used entirely by cancer survivors might welcome file sharers
-onto the network, though of course they'd prefer a wider
-variety of users.
-
-Reputability becomes even more tricky in the case of privacy networks,
-since the good uses of the network (such as publishing by journalists in
-dangerous countries) are typically kept private, whereas network abuses
-or other problems tend to be more widely publicized.
-
-The impact of public perception on security is especially important
-during the bootstrapping phase of the network, where the first few
-widely publicized uses of the network can dictate the types of users it
-attracts next.
-As an example, some U.S.~Department of Energy
-penetration testing engineers are tasked with compromising DoE computers
-from the outside. They only have a limited number of ISPs from which to
-launch their attacks, and they found that the defenders were recognizing
-attacks because they came from the same IP space. These engineers wanted
-to use Tor to hide their tracks. First, from a technical standpoint,
-Tor does not support the variety of IP packets one would like to use in
-such attacks (see Section~\ref{subsec:tcp-vs-ip}). But aside from this,
-we also decided that it would probably be poor precedent to encourage
-such use---even legal use that improves national security---and managed
-to dissuade them.
-
-%% "outside of academia, jap has just lost, permanently".  (That is,
-%% even though the crime detection issues are resolved and are unlikely
-%% to go down the same way again, public perception has not been kind.)
-
-\subsection{Sustainability and incentives}
-One of the unsolved problems in low-latency anonymity designs is
-how to keep the nodes running.  ZKS's Freedom network
-depended on paying third parties to run its servers; the JAP project's
-bandwidth depends on grants to pay for its bandwidth and
-administrative expenses.  In Tor, bandwidth and administrative costs are
-distributed across the volunteers who run Tor nodes, so we at least have
-reason to think that the Tor network could survive without continued research
-funding.\footnote{It also helps that Tor is implemented with free and open
-  source software that can be maintained by anybody with the ability and
-  inclination.}  But why are these volunteers running nodes, and what can we
-do to encourage more volunteers to do so?
-
-We have not formally surveyed Tor node operators to learn why they are
-running nodes, but
-from the information they have provided, it seems that many of them run Tor
-nodes for reasons of personal interest in privacy issues.  It is possible
-that others are running Tor nodes to protect their own
-anonymity, but of course they are
-hardly likely to tell us specifics if they are.
-%Significantly, Tor's threat model changes the anonymity incentives for running
-%a node.  In a high-latency mix network, users can receive additional
-%anonymity by running their own node, since doing so obscures when they are
-%injecting messages into the network.  But, anybody observing all I/O to a Tor
-%node can tell when the node is generating traffic that corresponds to
-%none of its incoming traffic.
-%
-%I didn't buy the above for reason's subtle enough that I just cut it -PFS
-Tor exit node operators do attain a degree of
-``deniability'' for traffic that originates at that exit node.  For
-  example, it is likely in practice that HTTP requests from a Tor node's IP
-  will be assumed to be from the Tor network.
-  More significantly, people and organizations who use Tor for
-  anonymity depend on the
-  continued existence of the Tor network to do so; running a node helps to
-  keep the network operational.
-%\item Local Tor entry and exit nodes allow users on a network to run in an
-%  `enclave' configuration.  [XXXX need to resolve this. They would do this
-%   for E2E encryption + auth?]
-
-
-%We must try to make the costs of running a Tor node easily minimized.
-Since Tor is run by volunteers, the most crucial software usability issue is
-usability by operators: when an operator leaves, the network becomes less
-usable by everybody.  To keep operators pleased, we must try to keep Tor's
-resource and administrative demands as low as possible.
-
-Because of ISP billing structures, many Tor operators have underused capacity
-that they are willing to donate to the network, at no additional monetary
-cost to them.  Features to limit bandwidth have been essential to adoption.
-Also useful has been a ``hibernation'' feature that allows a Tor node that
-wants to provide high bandwidth, but no more than a certain amount in a
-giving billing cycle, to become dormant once its bandwidth is exhausted, and
-to reawaken at a random offset into the next billing cycle.  This feature has
-interesting policy implications, however; see
-the next section below.
-Exit policies help to limit administrative costs by limiting the frequency of
-abuse complaints (see Section~\ref{subsec:tor-and-blacklists}). We discuss
-technical incentive mechanisms in Section~\ref{subsec:incentives-by-design}.
-
-%[XXXX say more.  Why else would you run a node? What else can we do/do we
-%  already do to make running a node more attractive?]
-%[We can enforce incentives; see Section 6.1. We can rate-limit clients.
-%  We can put "top bandwidth nodes lists" up a la seti@home.]
-
-\subsection{Bandwidth and file-sharing}
-\label{subsec:bandwidth-and-file-sharing}
-%One potentially problematical area with deploying Tor has been our response
-%to file-sharing applications.
-Once users have configured their applications to work with Tor, the largest
-remaining usability issue is performance.  Users begin to suffer
-when websites ``feel slow.''
-Clients currently try to build their connections through nodes that they
-guess will have enough bandwidth.  But even if capacity is allocated
-optimally, it seems unlikely that the current network architecture will have
-enough capacity to provide every user with as much bandwidth as she would
-receive if she weren't using Tor, unless far more nodes join the network.
-
-%Limited capacity does not destroy the network, however.  Instead, usage tends
-%towards an equilibrium: when performance suffers, users who value performance
-%over anonymity tend to leave the system, thus freeing capacity until the
-%remaining users on the network are exactly those willing to use that capacity
-%there is.
-
-Much of Tor's recent bandwidth difficulties have come from file-sharing
-applications.  These applications provide two challenges to
-any anonymizing network: their intensive bandwidth requirement, and the
-degree to which they are associated (correctly or not) with copyright
-infringement.
-
-High-bandwidth protocols can make the network unresponsive,
-but tend to be somewhat self-correcting as lack of bandwidth drives away
-users who need it.  Issues of copyright violation,
-however, are more interesting.  Typical exit node operators want to help
-people achieve private and anonymous speech, not to help people (say) host
-Vin Diesel movies for download; and typical ISPs would rather not
-deal with customers who draw menacing letters
-from the MPAA\@.  While it is quite likely that the operators are doing nothing
-illegal, many ISPs have policies of dropping users who get repeated legal
-threats regardless of the merits of those threats, and many operators would
-prefer to avoid receiving even meritless legal threats.
-So when letters arrive, operators are likely to face
-pressure to block file-sharing applications entirely, in order to avoid the
-hassle.
-
-But blocking file-sharing is not easy: popular
-protocols have evolved to run on non-standard ports to
-get around other port-based bans.  Thus, exit node operators who want to
-block file-sharing would have to find some way to integrate Tor with a
-protocol-aware exit filter.  This could be a technically expensive
-undertaking, and one with poor prospects: it is unlikely that Tor exit nodes
-would succeed where so many institutional firewalls have failed.  Another
-possibility for sensitive operators is to run a restrictive node that
-only permits exit connections to a restricted range of ports that are
-not frequently associated with file sharing.  There are increasingly few such
-ports.
-
-Other possible approaches might include rate-limiting connections, especially
-long-lived connections or connections to file-sharing ports, so that
-high-bandwidth connections do not flood the network.  We might also want to
-give priority to cells on low-bandwidth connections to keep them interactive,
-but this could have negative anonymity implications.
-
-For the moment, it seems that Tor's bandwidth issues have rendered it
-unattractive for bulk file-sharing traffic; this may continue to be so in the
-future.  Nevertheless, Tor will likely remain attractive for limited use in
-file-sharing protocols that have separate control and data channels.
-
-%[We should say more -- but what?  That we'll see a similar
-%  equilibriating effect as with bandwidth, where sensitive ops switch to
-%  middleman, and we become less useful for file-sharing, so the file-sharing
-%  people back off, so we get more ops since there's less file-sharing, so the
-%  file-sharers come back, etc.]
-
-%XXXX
-%in practice, plausible deniability is hypothetical and doesn't seem very
-%convincing. if ISPs find the activity antisocial, they don't care *why*
-%your computer is doing that behavior.
-
-\subsection{Tor and blacklists}
-\label{subsec:tor-and-blacklists}
-
-It was long expected that, alongside legitimate users, Tor would also
-attract troublemakers who exploit Tor to abuse services on the
-Internet with vandalism, rude mail, and so on.
-Our initial answer to this situation was to use ``exit policies''
-to allow individual Tor nodes to block access to specific IP/port ranges.
-This approach aims to make operators more willing to run Tor by allowing
-them to prevent their nodes from being used for abusing particular
-services.  For example, all Tor nodes currently block SMTP (port 25),
-to avoid being used for spam.
-
-Exit policies are useful, but they are insufficient: if not all nodes
-block a given service, that service may try to block Tor instead.
-While being blockable is important to being good netizens, we would like
-to encourage services to allow anonymous access. Services should not
-need to decide between blocking legitimate anonymous use and allowing
-unlimited abuse.
-
-This is potentially a bigger problem than it may appear.
-On the one hand, services should be allowed to refuse connections from
-sources of possible abuse.
-But when a Tor node administrator decides whether he prefers to be able
-to post to Wikipedia from his IP address, or to allow people to read
-Wikipedia anonymously through his Tor node, he is making the decision
-for others as well. (For a while, Wikipedia
-blocked all posting from all Tor nodes based on IP addresses.) If
-the Tor node shares an address with a campus or corporate NAT,
-then the decision can prevent the entire population from posting.
-This is a loss for both Tor
-and Wikipedia: we don't want to compete for (or divvy up) the
-NAT-protected entities of the world.
-
-Worse, many IP blacklists are coarse-grained: they ignore Tor's exit
-policies, partly because it's easier to implement and partly
-so they can punish
-all Tor nodes. One IP blacklist even bans
-every class C network that contains a Tor node, and recommends banning SMTP
-from these networks even though Tor does not allow SMTP at all.  This
-strategic decision aims to discourage the
-operation of anything resembling an open proxy by encouraging its neighbors
-to shut it down to get unblocked themselves. This pressure even
-affects Tor nodes running in middleman mode (disallowing all exits) when
-those nodes are blacklisted too.
-
-Problems of abuse occur mainly with services such as IRC networks and
-Wikipedia, which rely on IP blocking to ban abusive users.  While at first
-blush this practice might seem to depend on the anachronistic assumption that
-each IP is an identifier for a single user, it is actually more reasonable in
-practice: it assumes that non-proxy IPs are a costly resource, and that an
-abuser can not change IPs at will.  By blocking IPs which are used by Tor
-nodes, open proxies, and service abusers, these systems hope to make
-ongoing abuse difficult.  Although the system is imperfect, it works
-tolerably well for them in practice.
-
-Of course, we would prefer that legitimate anonymous users be able to
-access abuse-prone services.  One conceivable approach would require
-would-be IRC users, for instance, to register accounts if they want to
-access the IRC network from Tor.  In practice this would not
-significantly impede abuse if creating new accounts were easily automatable;
-this is why services use IP blocking.  To deter abuse, pseudonymous
-identities need to require a significant switching cost in resources or human
-time.  Some popular webmail applications
-impose cost with Reverse Turing Tests, but this step may not deter all
-abusers.  Freedom used blind signatures to limit
-the number of pseudonyms for each paying account, but Tor has neither the
-ability nor the desire to collect payment.
-
-We stress that as far as we can tell, most Tor uses are not
-abusive. Most services have not complained, and others are actively
-working to find ways besides banning to cope with the abuse. For example,
-the Freenode IRC network had a problem with a coordinated group of
-abusers joining channels and subtly taking over the conversation; but
-when they labelled all users coming from Tor IPs as ``anonymous users,''
-removing the ability of the abusers to blend in, the abuse stopped.
-
-%The use of squishy IP-based ``authentication'' and ``authorization''
-%has not broken down even to the level that SSNs used for these
-%purposes have in commercial and public record contexts. Externalities
-%and misplaced incentives cause a continued focus on fighting identity
-%theft by protecting SSNs rather than developing better authentication
-%and incentive schemes \cite{price-privacy}. Similarly we can expect a
-%continued use of identification by IP number as long as there is no
-%workable alternative.
-
-%[XXX Mention correct DNS-RBL implementation. -NM]
-
-\section{Design choices}
-
-In addition to social issues, Tor also faces some design trade-offs that must
-be investigated as the network develops.
-
-\subsection{Transporting the stream vs transporting the packets}
-\label{subsec:stream-vs-packet}
-\label{subsec:tcp-vs-ip}
-
-Tor transports streams; it does not tunnel packets.
-It has often been suggested that like the old Freedom
-network~\cite{freedom21-security}, Tor should
-``obviously'' anonymize IP traffic
-at the IP layer. Before this could be done, many issues need to be resolved:
-
-\begin{enumerate}
-\setlength{\itemsep}{0mm}
-\setlength{\parsep}{0mm}
-\item \emph{IP packets reveal OS characteristics.}  We would still need to do
-IP-level packet normalization, to stop things like TCP fingerprinting
-attacks. %There likely exist libraries that can help with this.
-This is unlikely to be a trivial task, given the diversity and complexity of
-TCP stacks.
-\item \emph{Application-level streams still need scrubbing.} We still need
-Tor to be easy to integrate with user-level application-specific proxies
-such as Privoxy. So it's not just a matter of capturing packets and
-anonymizing them at the IP layer.
-\item \emph{Certain protocols will still leak information.} For example, we
-must rewrite DNS requests so they are delivered to an unlinkable DNS server
-rather than the DNS server at a user's ISP; thus, we must understand the
-protocols we are transporting.
-\item \emph{The crypto is unspecified.} First we need a block-level encryption
-approach that can provide security despite
-packet loss and out-of-order delivery. Freedom allegedly had one, but it was
-never publicly specified.
-Also, TLS over UDP is not yet implemented or
-specified, though some early work has begun~\cite{dtls}.
-\item \emph{We'll still need to tune network parameters.} Since the above
-encryption system will likely need sequence numbers (and maybe more) to do
-replay detection, handle duplicate frames, and so on, we will be reimplementing
-a subset of TCP anyway---a notoriously tricky path.
-\item \emph{Exit policies for arbitrary IP packets mean building a secure
-IDS\@.}  Our node operators tell us that exit policies are one of
-the main reasons they're willing to run Tor.
-Adding an Intrusion Detection System to handle exit policies would
-increase the security complexity of Tor, and would likely not work anyway,
-as evidenced by the entire field of IDS and counter-IDS papers. Many
-potential abuse issues are resolved by the fact that Tor only transports
-valid TCP streams (as opposed to arbitrary IP including malformed packets
-and IP floods), so exit policies become even \emph{more} important as
-we become able to transport IP packets. We also need to compactly
-describe exit policies so clients can predict
-which nodes will allow which packets to exit.
-\item \emph{The Tor-internal name spaces would need to be redesigned.} We
-support hidden service {\tt{.onion}} addresses (and other special addresses,
-like {\tt{.exit}} which lets the user request a particular exit node),
-by intercepting the addresses when they are passed to the Tor client.
-Doing so at the IP level would require a more complex interface between
-Tor and the local DNS resolver.
-\end{enumerate}
-
-This list is discouragingly long, but being able to transport more
-protocols obviously has some advantages. It would be good to learn which
-items are actual roadblocks and which are easier to resolve than we think.
-
-To be fair, Tor's stream-based approach has run into
-stumbling blocks as well. While Tor supports the SOCKS protocol,
-which provides a standardized interface for generic TCP proxies, many
-applications do not support SOCKS\@. For them we already need to
-replace the networking system calls with SOCKS-aware
-versions, or run a SOCKS tunnel locally, neither of which is
-easy for the average user. %---even with good instructions.
-Even when applications can use SOCKS, they often make DNS requests
-themselves before handing an IP address to Tor, which advertises
-where the user is about to connect.
-We are still working on more usable solutions.
-
-%So to actually provide good anonymity, we need to make sure that
-%users have a practical way to use Tor anonymously.  Possibilities include
-%writing wrappers for applications to anonymize them automatically; improving
-%the applications' support for SOCKS; writing libraries to help application
-%writers use Tor properly; and implementing a local DNS proxy to reroute DNS
-%requests to Tor so that applications can simply point their DNS resolvers at
-%localhost and continue to use SOCKS for data only.
-
-\subsection{Mid-latency}
-\label{subsec:mid-latency}
-
-Some users need to resist traffic correlation attacks.  Higher-latency
-mix-networks introduce variability into message
-arrival times: as timing variance increases, timing correlation attacks
-require increasingly more data~\cite{e2e-traffic}. Can we improve Tor's
-resistance without losing too much usability?
-
-We need to learn whether we can trade a small increase in latency
-for a large anonymity increase, or if we'd end up trading a lot of
-latency for only a minimal security gain. A trade-off might be worthwhile
-even if we
-could only protect certain use cases, such as infrequent short-duration
-transactions. % To answer this question
-We might adapt the techniques of~\cite{e2e-traffic} to a lower-latency mix
-network, where the messages are batches of cells in temporally clustered
-connections. These large fixed-size batches can also help resist volume
-signature attacks~\cite{hintz-pet02}. We could also experiment with traffic
-shaping to get a good balance of throughput and security.
-%Other padding regimens might supplement the
-%mid-latency option; however, we should continue the caution with which
-%we have always approached padding lest the overhead cost us too much
-%performance or too many volunteers.
-
-We must keep usability in mind too. How much can latency increase
-before we drive users away? We've already been forced to increase
-latency slightly, as our growing network incorporates more DSL and
-cable-modem nodes and more nodes in distant continents. Perhaps we can
-harness this increased latency to improve anonymity rather than just
-reduce usability. Further, if we let clients label certain circuits as
-mid-latency as they are constructed, we could handle both types of traffic
-on the same network, giving users a choice between speed and security---and
-giving researchers a chance to experiment with parameters to improve the
-quality of those choices.
-
-\subsection{Enclaves and helper nodes}
-\label{subsec:helper-nodes}
-
-It has long been thought that users can improve their anonymity by
-running their own node~\cite{tor-design,or-ih96,or-pet00}, and using
-it in an \emph{enclave} configuration, where all their circuits begin
-at the node under their control. Running Tor clients or servers at
-the enclave perimeter is useful when policy or other requirements
-prevent individual machines within the enclave from running Tor
-clients~\cite{or-jsac98,or-discex00}.
-
-Of course, Tor's default path length of
-three is insufficient for these enclaves, since the entry and/or exit
-% [edit war: without the ``and/'' the natural reading here
-% is aut rather than vel. And the use of the plural verb does not work -pfs]
-themselves are sensitive. Tor thus increments path length by one
-for each sensitive endpoint in the circuit.
-Enclaves also help to protect against end-to-end attacks, since it's
-possible that traffic coming from the node has simply been relayed from
-elsewhere. However, if the node has recognizable behavior patterns,
-an attacker who runs nodes in the network can triangulate over time to
-gain confidence that it is in fact originating the traffic. Wright et
-al.~\cite{wright03} introduce the notion of a \emph{helper node}---a
-single fixed entry node for each user---to combat this \emph{predecessor
-attack}.
-
-However, the attack in~\cite{attack-tor-oak05} shows that simply adding
-to the path length, or using a helper node, may not protect an enclave
-node. A hostile web server can send constant interference traffic to
-all nodes in the network, and learn which nodes are involved in the
-circuit (though at least in the current attack, he can't learn their
-order). Using randomized path lengths may help some, since the attacker
-will never be certain he has identified all nodes in the path unless
-he probes the entire network, but as
-long as the network remains small this attack will still be feasible.
-
-Helper nodes also aim to help Tor clients, because choosing entry and exit
-points
-randomly and changing them frequently allows an attacker who controls
-even a few nodes to eventually link some of their destinations. The goal
-is to take the risk once and for all about choosing a bad entry node,
-rather than taking a new risk for each new circuit. (Choosing fixed
-exit nodes is less useful, since even an honest exit node still doesn't
-protect against a hostile website.) But obstacles remain before
-we can implement helper nodes.
-For one, the literature does not describe how to choose helpers from a list
-of nodes that changes over time.  If Alice is forced to choose a new entry
-helper every $d$ days and $c$ of the $n$ nodes are bad, she can expect
-to choose a compromised node around
-every $dc/n$ days. Statistically over time this approach only helps
-if she is better at choosing honest helper nodes than at choosing
-honest nodes.  Worse, an attacker with the ability to DoS nodes could
-force users to switch helper nodes more frequently, or remove
-other candidate helpers.
-
-%Do general DoS attacks have anonymity implications? See e.g. Adam
-%Back's IH paper, but I think there's more to be pointed out here. -RD
-% Not sure what you want to say here. -NM
-
-%Game theory for helper nodes: if Alice offers a hidden service on a
-%server (enclave model), and nobody ever uses helper nodes, then against
-%George+Steven's attack she's totally nailed. If only Alice uses a helper
-%node, then she's still identified as the source of the data. If everybody
-%uses a helper node (including Alice), then the attack identifies the
-%helper node and also Alice, and knows which one is which. If everybody
-%uses a helper node (but not Alice), then the attacker figures the real
-%source was a client that is using Alice as a helper node. [How's my
-%logic here?] -RD
-%
-% Not sure about the logic.  For the attack to work with helper nodes, the
-%attacker needs to guess that Alice is running the hidden service, right?
-%Otherwise, how can he know to measure her traffic specifically? -NM
-%
-% In the Murdoch-Danezis attack, the adversary measures all servers. -RD
-
-%point to routing-zones section re: helper nodes to defend against
-%big stuff.
-
-\subsection{Location-hidden services}
-\label{subsec:hidden-services}
-
-% This section is first up against the wall when the revolution comes.
-
-Tor's \emph{rendezvous points}
-let users provide TCP services to other Tor users without revealing
-the service's location. Since this feature is relatively recent, we describe
-here
-a couple of our early observations from its deployment.
-
-First, our implementation of hidden services seems less hidden than we'd
-like, since they build a different rendezvous circuit for each user,
-and an external adversary can induce them to
-produce traffic. This insecurity means that they may not be suitable as
-a building block for Free Haven~\cite{freehaven-berk} or other anonymous
-publishing systems that aim to provide long-term security, though helper
-nodes, as discussed above, would seem to help.
-
-\emph{Hot-swap} hidden services, where more than one location can
-provide the service and loss of any one location does not imply a
-change in service, would help foil intersection and observation attacks
-where an adversary monitors availability of a hidden service and also
-monitors whether certain users or servers are online. The design
-challenges in providing such services without otherwise compromising
-the hidden service's anonymity remain an open problem;
-however, see~\cite{move-ndss05}.
-
-In practice, hidden services are used for more than just providing private
-access to a web server or IRC server. People are using hidden services
-as a poor man's VPN and firewall-buster. Many people want to be able
-to connect to the computers in their private network via secure shell,
-and rather than playing with dyndns and trying to pierce holes in their
-firewall, they run a hidden service on the inside and then rendezvous
-with that hidden service externally.
-
-News sites like Bloggers Without Borders (www.b19s.org) are advertising
-a hidden-service address on their front page. Doing this can provide
-increased robustness if they use the dual-IP approach we describe
-in~\cite{tor-design},
-but in practice they do it to increase visibility
-of the Tor project and their support for privacy, and to offer
-a way for their users, using unmodified software, to get end-to-end
-encryption and authentication to their website.
-
-\subsection{Location diversity and ISP-class adversaries}
-\label{subsec:routing-zones}
-
-Anonymity networks have long relied on diversity of node location for
-protection against attacks---typically an adversary who can observe a
-larger fraction of the network can launch a more effective attack. One
-way to achieve dispersal involves growing the network so a given adversary
-sees less. Alternately, we can arrange the topology so traffic can enter
-or exit at many places (for example, by using a free-route network
-like Tor rather than a cascade network like JAP). Lastly, we can use
-distributed trust to spread each transaction over multiple jurisdictions.
-But how do we decide whether two nodes are in related locations?
-
-Feamster and Dingledine defined a \emph{location diversity} metric
-in~\cite{feamster:wpes2004}, and began investigating a variant of location
-diversity based on the fact that the Internet is divided into thousands of
-independently operated networks called {\em autonomous systems} (ASes).
-The key insight from their paper is that while we typically think of a
-connection as going directly from the Tor client to the first Tor node,
-actually it traverses many different ASes on each hop. An adversary at
-any of these ASes can monitor or influence traffic. Specifically, given
-plausible initiators and recipients, and given random path selection,
-some ASes in the simulation were able to observe 10\% to 30\% of the
-transactions (that is, learn both the origin and the destination) on
-the deployed Tor network (33 nodes as of June 2004).
-
-The paper concludes that for best protection against the AS-level
-adversary, nodes should be in ASes that have the most links to other ASes:
-Tier-1 ISPs such as AT\&T and Abovenet. Further, a given transaction
-is safest when it starts or ends in a Tier-1 ISP\@. Therefore, assuming
-initiator and responder are both in the U.S., it actually \emph{hurts}
-our location diversity to use far-flung nodes in
-continents like Asia or South America.
-% it's not just entering or exiting from them. using them as the middle
-% hop reduces your effective path length, which you presumably don't
-% want because you chose that path length for a reason.
-%
-% Not sure I buy that argument. Two end nodes in the right ASs to
-% discourage linking are still not known to each other. If some
-% adversary in a single AS can bridge the middle node, it shouldn't
-% therefore be able to identify initiator or responder; although it could
-% contribute to further attacks given more assumptions.
-% Nonetheless, no change to the actual text for now.
-
-Many open questions remain. First, it will be an immense engineering
-challenge to get an entire BGP routing table to each Tor client, or to
-summarize it sufficiently. Without a local copy, clients won't be
-able to safely predict what ASes will be traversed on the various paths
-through the Tor network to the final destination. Tarzan~\cite{tarzan:ccs02}
-and MorphMix~\cite{morphmix:fc04} suggest that we compare IP prefixes to
-determine location diversity; but the above paper showed that in practice
-many of the Mixmaster nodes that share a single AS have entirely different
-IP prefixes. When the network has scaled to thousands of nodes, does IP
-prefix comparison become a more useful approximation? % Alternatively, can
-%relevant parts of the routing tables be summarized centrally and delivered to
-%clients in a less verbose format?
-%% i already said "or to summarize is sufficiently" above. is that not
-%% enough? -RD
-%
-Second, we can take advantage of caching certain content at the
-exit nodes, to limit the number of requests that need to leave the
-network at all. What about taking advantage of caches like Akamai or
-Google~\cite{shsm03}? (Note that they're also well-positioned as global
-adversaries.)
-%
-Third, if we follow the recommendations in~\cite{feamster:wpes2004}
- and tailor path selection
-to avoid choosing endpoints in similar locations, how much are we hurting
-anonymity against larger real-world adversaries who can take advantage
-of knowing our algorithm?
-%
-Fourth, can we use this knowledge to figure out which gaps in our network
-most affect our robustness to this class of attack, and go recruit
-new nodes with those ASes in mind?
-
-%Tor's security relies in large part on the dispersal properties of its
-%network. We need to be more aware of the anonymity properties of various
-%approaches so we can make better design decisions in the future.
-
-\subsection{The Anti-censorship problem}
-\label{subsec:china}
-
-Citizens in a variety of countries, such as most recently China and
-Iran, are blocked from accessing various sites outside
-their country. These users try to find any tools available to allow
-them to get around these firewalls. Some anonymity networks, such as
-Six-Four~\cite{six-four}, are designed specifically with this goal in
-mind; others like the Anonymizer~\cite{anonymizer} are paid by sponsors
-such as Voice of America to encourage Internet
-freedom. Even though Tor wasn't
-designed with ubiquitous access to the network in mind, thousands of
-users across the world are now using it for exactly this purpose.
-% Academic and NGO organizations, peacefire, \cite{berkman}, etc
-
-Anti-censorship networks hoping to bridge country-level blocks face
-a variety of challenges. One of these is that they need to find enough
-exit nodes---servers on the `free' side that are willing to relay
-traffic from users to their final destinations. Anonymizing
-networks like Tor are well-suited to this task since we have
-already gathered a set of exit nodes that are willing to tolerate some
-political heat.
-
-The other main challenge is to distribute a list of reachable relays
-to the users inside the country, and give them software to use those relays,
-without letting the censors also enumerate this list and block each
-relay. Anonymizer solves this by buying lots of seemingly-unrelated IP
-addresses (or having them donated), abandoning old addresses as they are
-`used up,' and telling a few users about the new ones. Distributed
-anonymizing networks again have an advantage here, in that we already
-have tens of thousands of separate IP addresses whose users might
-volunteer to provide this service since they've already installed and use
-the software for their own privacy~\cite{koepsell:wpes2004}. Because
-the Tor protocol separates routing from network discovery \cite{tor-design},
-volunteers could configure their Tor clients
-to generate node descriptors and send them to a special directory
-server that gives them out to dissidents who need to get around blocks.
-
-Of course, this still doesn't prevent the adversary
-from enumerating and preemptively blocking the volunteer relays.
-Perhaps a tiered-trust system could be built where a few individuals are
-given relays' locations. They could then recommend other individuals
-by telling them
-those addresses, thus providing a built-in incentive to avoid letting the
-adversary intercept them. Max-flow trust algorithms~\cite{advogato}
-might help to bound the number of IP addresses leaked to the adversary. Groups
-like the W3C are looking into using Tor as a component in an overall system to
-help address censorship; we wish them success.
-
-%\cite{infranet}
-
-\section{Scaling}
-\label{sec:scaling}
-
-Tor is running today with hundreds of nodes and tens of thousands of
-users, but it will certainly not scale to millions.
-Scaling Tor involves four main challenges. First, to get a
-large set of nodes, we must address incentives for
-users to carry traffic for others. Next is safe node discovery, both
-while bootstrapping (Tor clients must robustly find an initial
-node list) and later (Tor clients must learn about a fair sample
-of honest nodes and not let the adversary control circuits).
-We must also detect and handle node speed and reliability as the network
-becomes increasingly heterogeneous: since the speed and reliability
-of a circuit is limited by its worst link, we must learn to track and
-predict performance. Finally, we must stop assuming that all points on
-the network can connect to all other points.
-
-\subsection{Incentives by Design}
-\label{subsec:incentives-by-design}
-
-There are three behaviors we need to encourage for each Tor node: relaying
-traffic; providing good throughput and reliability while doing it;
-and allowing traffic to exit the network from that node.
-
-We encourage these behaviors through \emph{indirect} incentives: that
-is, by designing the system and educating users in such a way that users
-with certain goals will choose to relay traffic.  One
-main incentive for running a Tor node is social: volunteers
-altruistically donate their bandwidth and time.  We encourage this with
-public rankings of the throughput and reliability of nodes, much like
-seti@home.  We further explain to users that they can get
-deniability for any traffic emerging from the same address as a Tor
-exit node, and they can use their own Tor node
-as an entry or exit point with confidence that it's not run by an adversary.
-Further, users may run a node simply because they need such a network
-to be persistently available and usable, and the value of supporting this
-exceeds any countervening costs.
-Finally, we can encourage operators by improving the usability and feature
-set of the software:
-rate limiting support and easy packaging decrease the hassle of
-maintaining a node, and our configurable exit policies allow each
-operator to advertise a policy describing the hosts and ports to which
-he feels comfortable connecting.
-
-To date these incentives appear to have been adequate. As the system scales
-or as new issues emerge, however, we may also need to provide
- \emph{direct} incentives:
-providing payment or other resources in return for high-quality service.
-Paying actual money is problematic: decentralized e-cash systems are
-not yet practical, and a centralized collection system not only reduces
-robustness, but also has failed in the past (the history of commercial
-anonymizing networks is littered with failed attempts).  A more promising
-option is to use a tit-for-tat incentive scheme, where nodes provide better
-service to nodes that have provided good service for them.
-
-Unfortunately, such an approach introduces new anonymity problems.
-There are many surprising ways for nodes to game the incentive and
-reputation system to undermine anonymity---such systems are typically
-designed to encourage fairness in storage or bandwidth usage, not
-fairness of provided anonymity. An adversary can attract more traffic
-by performing well or can target individual users by selectively
-performing, to undermine their anonymity. Typically a user who
-chooses evenly from all nodes is most resistant to an adversary
-targeting him, but that approach hampers the efficient use
-of heterogeneous nodes.
-
-%When a node (call him Steve) performs well for Alice, does Steve gain
-%reputation with the entire system, or just with Alice? If the entire
-%system, how does Alice tell everybody about her experience in a way that
-%prevents her from lying about it yet still protects her identity? If
-%Steve's behavior only affects Alice's behavior, does this allow Steve to
-%selectively perform only for Alice, and then break her anonymity later
-%when somebody (presumably Alice) routes through his node?
-
-A possible solution is a simplified approach to the tit-for-tat
-incentive scheme based on two rules: (1) each node should measure the
-service it receives from adjacent nodes, and provide service relative
-to the received service, but (2) when a node is making decisions that
-affect its own security (such as building a circuit for its own
-application connections), it should choose evenly from a sufficiently
-large set of nodes that meet some minimum service
-threshold~\cite{casc-rep}.  This approach allows us to discourage
-bad service
-without opening Alice up as much to attacks.  All of this requires
-further study.
-
-\subsection{Trust and discovery}
-\label{subsec:trust-and-discovery}
-
-The published Tor design is deliberately simplistic in how
-new nodes are authorized and how clients are informed about Tor
-nodes and their status.
-All nodes periodically upload a signed description
-of their locations, keys, and capabilities to each of several well-known {\it
-  directory servers}.  These directory servers construct a signed summary
-of all known Tor nodes (a ``directory''), and a signed statement of which
-nodes they
-believe to be operational then (a ``network status'').  Clients
-periodically download a directory to learn the latest nodes and
-keys, and more frequently download a network status to learn which nodes are
-likely to be running.  Tor nodes also operate as directory caches, to
-lighten the bandwidth on the directory servers.
-
-To prevent Sybil attacks (wherein an adversary signs up many
-purportedly independent nodes to increase her network view),
-this design
-requires the directory server operators to manually
-approve new nodes.  Unapproved nodes are included in the directory,
-but clients
-do not use them at the start or end of their circuits.  In practice,
-directory administrators perform little actual verification, and tend to
-approve any Tor node whose operator can compose a coherent email.
-This procedure
-may prevent trivial automated Sybil attacks, but will do little
-against a clever and determined attacker.
-
-There are a number of flaws in this system that need to be addressed as we
-move forward. First,
-each directory server represents an independent point of failure: any
-compromised directory server could start recommending only compromised
-nodes.
-Second, as more nodes join the network, %the more unreasonable it
-%becomes to expect clients to know about them all.
-directories
-become infeasibly large, and downloading the list of nodes becomes
-burdensome.
-Third, the validation scheme may do as much harm as it does good.  It 
-does not prevent clever attackers from mounting Sybil attacks,
-and it may deter node operators from joining the network---if
-they expect the validation process to be difficult, or they do not share
-any languages in common with the directory server operators.
-
-We could try to move the system in several directions, depending on our
-choice of threat model and requirements.  If we did not need to increase
-network capacity to support more users, we could simply
- adopt even stricter validation requirements, and reduce the number of
-nodes in the network to a trusted minimum.  
-But, we can only do that if we can simultaneously make node capacity
-scale much more than we anticipate to be feasible soon, and if we can find
-entities willing to run such nodes, an equally daunting prospect.
-
-In order to address the first two issues, it seems wise to move to a system
-including a number of semi-trusted directory servers, no one of which can
-compromise a user on its own.  Ultimately, of course, we cannot escape the
-problem of a first introducer: since most users will run Tor in whatever
-configuration the software ships with, the Tor distribution itself will
-remain a single point of failure so long as it includes the seed
-keys for directory servers, a list of directory servers, or any other means
-to learn which nodes are on the network.  But omitting this information
-from the Tor distribution would only delegate the trust problem to each
-individual user. %, most of whom are presumably less informed about how to make
-%trust decisions than the Tor developers.
-A well publicized, widely available, authoritatively and independently
-endorsed and signed list of initial directory servers and their keys
-is a possible solution. But, setting that up properly is itself a large 
-bootstrapping task.
-
-%Network discovery, sybil, node admission, scaling. It seems that the code
-%will ship with something and that's our trust root. We could try to get
-%people to build a web of trust, but no. Where we go from here depends
-%on what threats we have in mind. Really decentralized if your threat is
-%RIAA; less so if threat is to application data or individuals or...
-
-\subsection{Measuring performance and capacity}
-\label{subsec:performance}
-
-One of the paradoxes with engineering an anonymity network is that we'd like
-to learn as much as we can about how traffic flows so we can improve the
-network, but we want to prevent others from learning how traffic flows in
-order to trace users' connections through the network.  Furthermore, many
-mechanisms that help Tor run efficiently
-require measurements about the network.
-
-Currently, nodes try to deduce their own available bandwidth (based on how
-much traffic they have been able to transfer recently) and include this
-information in the descriptors they upload to the directory. Clients
-choose servers weighted by their bandwidth, neglecting really slow
-servers and capping the influence of really fast ones.
-%
-This is, of course, eminently cheatable.  A malicious node can get a
-disproportionate amount of traffic simply by claiming to have more bandwidth
-than it does.  But better mechanisms have their problems.  If bandwidth data
-is to be measured rather than self-reported, it is usually possible for
-nodes to selectively provide better service for the measuring party, or
-sabotage the measured value of other nodes.  Complex solutions for
-mix networks have been proposed, but do not address the issues
-completely~\cite{mix-acc,casc-rep}.
-
-Even with no cheating, network measurement is complex.  It is common
-for views of a node's latency and/or bandwidth to vary wildly between
-observers.  Further, it is unclear whether total bandwidth is really
-the right measure; perhaps clients should instead be considering nodes
-based on unused bandwidth or observed throughput.
-%How to measure performance without letting people selectively deny service
-%by distinguishing pings. Heck, just how to measure performance at all. In
-%practice people have funny firewalls that don't match up to their exit
-%policies and Tor doesn't deal.
-%
-%Network investigation: Is all this bandwidth publishing thing a good idea?
-%How can we collect stats better? Note weasel's smokeping, at
-%http://seppia.noreply.org/cgi-bin/smokeping.cgi?target=Tor
-%which probably gives george and steven enough info to break tor?
-%
-And even if we can collect and use this network information effectively,
-we must ensure
-that it is not more useful to attackers than to us.  While it
-seems plausible that bandwidth data alone is not enough to reveal
-sender-recipient connections under most circumstances, it could certainly
-reveal the path taken by large traffic flows under low-usage circumstances.
-
-\subsection{Non-clique topologies}
-
-Tor's comparatively weak threat model may allow easier scaling than
-other
-designs.  High-latency mix networks need to avoid partitioning attacks, where
-network splits let an attacker distinguish users in different partitions.
-Since Tor assumes the adversary cannot cheaply observe nodes at will,
-a network split may not decrease protection much.
-Thus, one option when the scale of a Tor network
-exceeds some size is simply to split it. Nodes could be allocated into
-partitions while hampering collaborating hostile nodes from taking over
-a single partition~\cite{casc-rep}.
-Clients could switch between
-networks, even on a per-circuit basis.
-%Future analysis may uncover
-%other dangers beyond those affecting mix-nets.
-
-More conservatively, we can try to scale a single Tor network. Likely
-problems with adding more servers to a single Tor network include an
-explosion in the number of sockets needed on each server as more servers
-join, and increased coordination overhead to keep each users' view of
-the network consistent. As we grow, we will also have more instances of
-servers that can't reach each other simply due to Internet topology or
-routing problems.
-
-%include restricting the number of sockets and the amount of bandwidth
-%used by each node.  The number of sockets is determined by the network's
-%connectivity and the number of users, while bandwidth capacity is determined
-%by the total bandwidth of nodes on the network.  The simplest solution to
-%bandwidth capacity is to add more nodes, since adding a Tor node of any
-%feasible bandwidth will increase the traffic capacity of the network.  So as
-%a first step to scaling, we should focus on making the network tolerate more
-%nodes, by reducing the interconnectivity of the nodes; later we can reduce
-%overhead associated with directories, discovery, and so on.
-
-We can address these points by reducing the network's connectivity.
-Danezis~\cite{danezis:pet2003} considers
-the anonymity implications of restricting routes on mix networks and
-recommends an approach based on expander graphs (where any subgraph is likely
-to have many neighbors).  It is not immediately clear that this approach will
-extend to Tor, which has a weaker threat model but higher performance
-requirements: instead of analyzing the
-probability of an attacker's viewing whole paths, we will need to examine the
-attacker's likelihood of compromising the endpoints.
-%
-Tor may not need an expander graph per se: it
-may be enough to have a single central subnet that is highly connected, like
-an Internet backbone. %  As an
-%example, assume fifty nodes of relatively high traffic capacity.  This
-%\emph{center} forms a clique.  Assume each center node can
-%handle 200 connections to other nodes (including the other ones in the
-%center). Assume every noncenter node connects to three nodes in the
-%center and anyone out of the center that they want to.  Then the
-%network easily scales to c. 2500 nodes with commensurate increase in
-%bandwidth.
-There are many open questions: how to distribute connectivity information
-(presumably nodes will learn about the central nodes
-when they download Tor), whether central nodes
-will need to function as a `backbone', and so on. As above,
-this could reduce the amount of anonymity available from a mix-net,
-but for a low-latency network where anonymity derives largely from
-the edges, it may be feasible.
-
-%In a sense, Tor already has a non-clique topology.
-%Individuals can set up and run Tor nodes without informing the
-%directory servers. This allows groups to run a
-%local Tor network of private nodes that connects to the public Tor
-%network. This network is hidden behind the Tor network, and its
-%only visible connection to Tor is at those points where it connects.
-%As far as the public network, or anyone observing it, is concerned,
-%they are running clients.
-
-\section{The Future}
-\label{sec:conclusion}
-
-Tor is the largest and most diverse low-latency anonymity network
-available, but we are still in the beginning stages of deployment. Several
-major questions remain.
-
-First, will our volunteer-based approach to sustainability work in the
-long term? As we add more features and destabilize the network, the
-developers spend a lot of time keeping the server operators happy. Even
-though Tor is free software, the network would likely stagnate and die at
-this stage if the developers stopped actively working on it. We may get
-an unexpected boon from the fact that we're a general-purpose overlay
-network: as Tor grows more popular, other groups who need an overlay
-network on the Internet are starting to adapt Tor to their needs.
-%
-Second, Tor is only one of many components that preserve privacy online.
-For applications where it is desirable to
-keep identifying information out of application traffic, someone must build
-more and better protocol-aware proxies that are usable by ordinary people.
-%
-Third, we need to gain a reputation for social good, and learn how to
-coexist with the variety of Internet services and their established
-authentication mechanisms. We can't just keep escalating the blacklist
-standoff forever.
-%
-Fourth, the current Tor
-architecture does not scale even to handle current user demand. We must
-find designs and incentives to let some clients relay traffic too, without
-sacrificing too much anonymity.
-
-These are difficult and open questions. Yet choosing not to solve them
-means leaving most users to a less secure network or no anonymizing
-network at all.
-
-\bibliographystyle{plain} \bibliography{tor-design}
-
-\clearpage
-\appendix
-
-\begin{figure}[t]
-%\unitlength=1in
-\centering
-%\begin{picture}(6.0,2.0)
-%\put(3,1){\makebox(0,0)[c]{\epsfig{figure=graphnodes,width=6in}}}
-%\end{picture}
-\mbox{\epsfig{figure=graphnodes,width=5in}}
-\caption{Number of Tor nodes over time, through January 2005. Lowest
-line is number of exit
-nodes that allow connections to port 80. Middle line is total number of
-verified (registered) Tor nodes. The line above that represents nodes
-that are running but not yet registered.}
-\label{fig:graphnodes}
-\end{figure}
-
-\begin{figure}[t]
-\centering
-\mbox{\epsfig{figure=graphtraffic,width=5in}}
-\caption{The sum of traffic reported by each node over time, through
-January 2005. The bottom
-pair show average throughput, and the top pair represent the largest 15
-minute burst in each 4 hour period.}
-\label{fig:graphtraffic}
-\end{figure}
-
-\end{document}
-
-%Making use of nodes with little bandwidth, or high latency/packet loss.
-
-%Running Tor nodes behind NATs, behind great-firewalls-of-China, etc.
-%Restricted routes. How to propagate to everybody the topology? BGP
-%style doesn't work because we don't want just *one* path. Point to
-%Geoff's stuff.
-

doc/design-paper/challenges2.tex

@@ -1,1612 +0,0 @@
-\documentclass{llncs}
-
-\usepackage{url}
-\usepackage{amsmath}
-\usepackage{epsfig}
-
-\setlength{\textwidth}{5.9in}
-\setlength{\textheight}{8.4in}
-\setlength{\topmargin}{.5cm}
-\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{1cm}
-\setlength{\evensidemargin}{1cm}
-
-\newenvironment{tightlist}{\begin{list}{$\bullet$}{
-  \setlength{\itemsep}{0mm}
-    \setlength{\parsep}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\labelsep}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\labelwidth}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\topsep}{0mm}
-    }}{\end{list}}
-
-
-\newcommand{\workingnote}[1]{}        % The version that hides the note.
-%\newcommand{\workingnote}[1]{(**#1)}   % The version that makes the note visible.
-
-
-\begin{document}
-
-\title{Design challenges and social factors in deploying low-latency anonymity}
-
-\author{Roger Dingledine\inst{1} \and
-Nick Mathewson\inst{1} \and
-Paul Syverson\inst{2}}
-\institute{The Free Haven Project \email{<\{arma,nickm\}@freehaven.net>} \and
-Naval Research Laboratory \email{<syverson@itd.nrl.navy.mil>}}
-
-\maketitle
-\pagestyle{plain}
-
-\begin{abstract}
-  There are many unexpected or unexpectedly difficult obstacles to
-  deploying anonymous communications.  We describe the design
-  philosophy of Tor (the third-generation onion routing network), and,
-  drawing on our experiences deploying Tor, we describe social
-  challenges and related technical issues that must be faced in
-  building, deploying, and sustaining a scalable, distributed,
-  low-latency anonymity network.
-\end{abstract}
-
-\section{Introduction}
-% Your network is not practical unless it is sustainable and distributed.
-Anonymous communication is full of surprises.  This article describes
-Tor, a low-latency general-purpose anonymous communication system, and
-discusses some unexpected challenges arising from our experiences
-deploying Tor.  We will discuss
-some of the difficulties we have experienced and how we have met them (or how
-we plan to meet them, if we know).
-%  We also discuss some less
-% troublesome open problems that we must nevertheless eventually address.
-%We will describe both those future challenges that we intend to explore and
-%those that we have decided not to explore and why.
-
-Tor is an overlay network for anonymizing TCP streams over the
-Internet~\cite{tor-design}.  It addresses limitations in earlier Onion
-Routing designs~\cite{or-ih96,or-jsac98,or-discex00,or-pet00} by adding
-perfect forward secrecy, congestion control, directory servers, data
-integrity, 
-%configurable exit policies, Huh? That was part of the gen. 1 design -PFS
-and a revised design for location-hidden services using
-rendezvous points.  Tor works on the real-world Internet, requires no special
-privileges or kernel modifications, requires little synchronization or
-coordination between nodes, and provides a reasonable trade-off between
-anonymity, usability, and efficiency.
-
-We deployed the public Tor network in October 2003; since then it has
-grown to over nine hundred volunteer-operated nodes worldwide
-and over 100 megabytes average traffic per second from hundreds of
-thousands of concurrent users.
-Tor's research strategy has focused on deploying
-a network to as many users as possible; thus, we have resisted designs that
-would compromise deployability by imposing high resource demands on node
-operators, and designs that would compromise usability by imposing
-unacceptable restrictions on which applications we support.  Although this
-strategy has drawbacks (including a weakened threat model, as
-discussed below), it has made it possible for Tor to serve many
-hundreds of thousands of users and attract funding from diverse
-sources whose goals range from security on a national scale down to
-individual liberties.
-
-In~\cite{tor-design} we gave an overall view of Tor's design and
-goals.  Here we review that design at a higher level and describe
-some policy and social issues that we face as
-we continue deployment. Though we will discuss technical responses to
-these, we do not in this article discuss purely technical challenges
-facing Tor (e.g., transport protocol, resource scaling issues, moving
-to non-clique topologies, performance, etc.), nor do we even cover
-all of the social issues: we simply touch on some of the most salient of these.
-Also, rather than providing complete solutions to every problem, we
-instead lay out the challenges and constraints that we have observed while
-deploying Tor.  In doing so, we aim to provide a research agenda
-of general interest to projects attempting to build
-and deploy practical, usable anonymity networks in the wild.
-
-%While the Tor design paper~\cite{tor-design} gives an overall view its
-%design and goals,
-%this paper describes the policy and technical issues that Tor faces as
-%we continue deployment. Rather than trying to provide complete solutions
-%to every problem here, we lay out the assumptions and constraints
-%that we have observed through deploying Tor in the wild. In doing so, we
-%aim to create a research agenda for others to
-%help in addressing these issues.
-% Section~\ref{sec:what-is-tor} gives an
-%overview of the Tor
-%design and ours goals. Sections~\ref{sec:crossroads-policy}
-%and~\ref{sec:crossroads-design} go on to describe the practical challenges,
-%both policy and technical respectively,
-%that stand in the way of moving
-%from a practical useful network to a practical useful anonymous network.
-
-%\section{What Is Tor}
-\section{Background}
-Here we give a basic overview of the Tor design and its properties, and
-compare Tor to other low-latency anonymity designs.
-
-\subsection{Tor, threat models, and distributed trust}
-\label{sec:what-is-tor}
-
-%Here we give a basic overview of the Tor design and its properties. For
-%details on the design, assumptions, and security arguments, we refer
-%the reader to the Tor design paper~\cite{tor-design}.
-
-Tor provides \emph{forward privacy}, so that users can connect to
-Internet sites without revealing their logical or physical locations
-to those sites or to observers.  It also provides \emph{location-hidden
-services}, so that servers can support authorized users without
-giving an effective vector for physical or online attackers.
-Tor provides these protections even when a portion of its
-infrastructure is compromised.
-
-To connect to a remote server via Tor, the client software learns a signed
-list of Tor nodes from one of several central \emph{directory servers}, and
-incrementally creates a private pathway or \emph{circuit} of encrypted
-connections through authenticated Tor nodes on the network, negotiating a
-separate set of encryption keys for each hop along the circuit.  The circuit
-is extended one node at a time, and each node along the way knows only the
-immediately previous and following nodes in the circuit, so no individual Tor
-node knows the complete path that each fixed-sized data packet (or
-\emph{cell}) will take.
-%Because each node sees no more than one hop in the
-%circuit,
-Thus, neither an eavesdropper nor a compromised node can
-see both the connection's source and destination.  Later requests use a new
-circuit, to complicate long-term linkability between different actions by
-a single user.
-
-%Tor also helps servers hide their locations while
-%providing services such as web publishing or instant
-%messaging.  Using ``rendezvous points'', other Tor users can
-%connect to these authenticated hidden services, neither one learning the
-%other's network identity.
-
-Tor attempts to anonymize the transport layer, not the application layer.
-This approach is useful for applications such as SSH
-where authenticated communication is desired. However, when anonymity from
-those with whom we communicate is desired,
-application protocols that include personally identifying information need
-additional application-level scrubbing proxies, such as
-Privoxy~\cite{privoxy} for HTTP\@.  Furthermore, Tor does not relay arbitrary
-IP packets; it only anonymizes TCP streams and DNS requests.
-%, and only supports
-%connections via SOCKS
-%(but see Section~\ref{subsec:tcp-vs-ip}).
-
-%Most node operators do not want to allow arbitrary TCP traffic. % to leave
-%their server.
-%To address this, Tor provides \emph{exit policies} so
-%each exit node can block the IP addresses and ports it is unwilling to allow.
-%Tor nodes advertise their exit policies to the directory servers, so that
-%client can tell which nodes will support their connections.
-%
-%***Covered in 3.4*** Matt Edman via -PFS
-%
-%As of this writing, the Tor network has grown to around nine hundred nodes
-%on four continents, with a total average load exceeding 100 MB/s and
-%a total capacity exceeding %1Gbit/s. 
-%\\***What's the current capacity? -PFS***\\
-%
-%***Covered in intro*** Matt Edman via -PFS
-%
-%Appendix A
-%shows a graph of the number of working nodes over time, as well as a
-%graph of the number of bytes being handled by the network over time.
-%The network is now sufficiently diverse for further development
-%and testing; but of course we always encourage new nodes
-%to join.
-
-Building from earlier versions of onion routing developed at NRL,
-Tor was researched and developed by NRL and FreeHaven under
-funding by ONR and DARPA for use in securing government
-communications. Continuing development and deployment has also been
-funded by the Omidyar Network, the Electronic Frontier Foundation for use
-in maintaining civil liberties for ordinary citizens online, and the
-International Broadcasting Bureau and Reporters without Borders to combat
-blocking and censorship on the Internet. As we will see below,
-this wide variety of interests helps maintain both the stability and
-the security of the network.
-
-% The Tor
-%protocol was chosen
-%for the anonymizing layer in the European Union's PRIME directive to
-%help maintain privacy in Europe.
-%The AN.ON project in Germany
-%has integrated an independent implementation of the Tor protocol into
-%their popular Java Anon Proxy anonymizing client.
-
-\medskip
-\noindent
-{\bf Threat models and design philosophy.}
-The ideal Tor network would be practical, useful and anonymous. When
-trade-offs arise between these properties, Tor's research strategy has been
-to remain useful enough to attract many users,
-and practical enough to support them.  Only subject to these
-constraints do we try to maximize
-anonymity.\footnote{This is not the only possible
-direction in anonymity research: designs exist that provide more anonymity
-than Tor at the expense of significantly increased resource requirements, or
-decreased flexibility in application support (typically because of increased
-latency).  Such research does not typically abandon aspirations toward
-deployability or utility, but instead tries to maximize deployability and
-utility subject to a certain degree of structural anonymity (structural because
-usability and practicality affect usage which affects the actual anonymity
-provided by the network \cite{econymics,back01}).}
-%{We believe that these
-%approaches can be promising and useful, but that by focusing on deploying a
-%usable system in the wild, Tor helps us experiment with the actual parameters
-%of what makes a system ``practical'' for volunteer operators and ``useful''
-%for home users, and helps illuminate undernoticed issues which any deployed
-%volunteer anonymity network will need to address.}
-Because of our strategy, Tor has a weaker threat model than many designs in
-the literature.  In particular, because we
-support interactive communications without impractically expensive padding,
-we fall prey to a variety
-of intra-network~\cite{back01,attack-tor-oak05,flow-correlation04,hs-attack}
-and
-end-to-end~\cite{danezis:pet2004,SS03} anonymity-breaking attacks.
-
-Tor does not attempt to defend against a global observer.  In general, an
-attacker who can measure both ends of a connection through the Tor network
-% I say 'measure' rather than 'observe', to encompass murdoch-danezis
-% style attacks. -RD
-can correlate the timing and volume of data on that connection as it enters
-and leaves the network, and so link communication partners.
-Known solutions to this attack would seem to require introducing a
-prohibitive degree of traffic padding between the user and the network, or
-introducing an unacceptable degree of latency.
-Also, it is not clear that these methods would
-work at all against a minimally active adversary who could introduce timing
-patterns or additional traffic.  Thus, Tor only attempts to defend against
-external observers who cannot observe both sides of a user's connections.
-
-Against internal attackers who sign up Tor nodes, the situation is more
-complicated.  In the simplest case, if an adversary has compromised $c$ of
-$n$ nodes on the Tor network, then the adversary will be able to compromise
-a random circuit with probability $\frac{c^2}{n^2}$~\cite{or-pet00}
-(since the circuit
-initiator chooses hops randomly).  But there are
-complicating factors:
-(1)~If the user continues to build random circuits over time, an adversary
-  is pretty certain to see a statistical sample of the user's traffic, and
-  thereby can build an increasingly accurate profile of her behavior. 
-(2)~An adversary who controls a popular service outside the Tor network
-  can be certain to observe all connections to that service; he
-  can therefore trace connections to that service with probability
-  $\frac{c}{n}$.
-(3)~Users do not in fact choose nodes with uniform probability; they
-  favor nodes with high bandwidth or uptime, and exit nodes that
-  permit connections to their favorite services.
-We demonstrated the severity of these problems in experiments on the
-live Tor network in 2006~\cite{hsattack} and introduced \emph{entry
-  guards} as a means to curtail them.  By choosing entry guards from
-a small persistent subset, it becomes difficult for an adversary to
-increase the number of circuits observed entering the network from any
-given client simply by causing
-numerous connections or by watching compromised nodes over time.% (See
-%also Section~\ref{subsec:routing-zones} for discussion of larger
-%adversaries and our dispersal goals.)
-
-
-% I'm trying to make this paragraph work without reference to the
-% analysis/confirmation distinction, which we haven't actually introduced
-% yet, and which we realize isn't very stable anyway.  Also, I don't want to
-% deprecate these attacks if we can't demonstrate that they don't work, since
-% in case they *do* turn out to work well against Tor, we'll look pretty
-% foolish. -NM
-%
-% Matt suggests maybe cutting the following paragraph -PFS
-%
-More powerful attacks may exist. In \cite{hintz-pet02} it was
-shown that an attacker who can catalog data volumes of popular
-responder destinations (say, websites with consistent data volumes) may not
-need to
-observe both ends of a stream to learn source-destination links for those
-responders. Entry guards should complicate such attacks as well.
-Similarly, latencies of going through various routes can be
-cataloged~\cite{back01} to connect endpoints.
-% Also, \cite{kesdogan:pet2002} takes the
-% attack another level further, to narrow down where you could be
-% based on an intersection attack on subpages in a website. -RD
-It has not yet been shown whether these attacks will succeed or fail
-in the presence of the variability and volume quantization introduced by the
-Tor network, but it seems likely that these factors will at best delay
-the time and data needed for success
-rather than prevent the attacks completely.
-
-\workingnote{
-Along similar lines, the same paper suggests a ``clogging
-attack'' in which the throughput on a circuit is observed to slow
-down when an adversary clogs the right nodes with his own traffic.
-To determine the nodes in a circuit this attack requires the ability
-to continuously monitor the traffic exiting the network on a circuit
-that is up long enough to probe all network nodes in binary fashion.
-% Though somewhat related, clogging and interference are really different
-% attacks with different assumptions about adversary distribution and
-% capabilities as well as different techniques. -pfs
-Murdoch and Danezis~\cite{attack-tor-oak05} show a practical
-interference attack against portions of
-the fifty node Tor network as deployed in mid 2004.
-An outside attacker can actively trace a circuit through the Tor network
-by observing changes in the latency of his
-own traffic sent through various Tor nodes. This can be done
-simultaneously at multiple nodes; however, like clogging,
-this attack only reveals
-the Tor nodes in the circuit, not initiator and responder addresses,
-so it is still necessary to discover the endpoints to complete an
-effective attack. The the size and diversity of the Tor network have
-increased many fold since then, and it is unknown if the attacks
-can scale to the current Tor network.
-}
-
-
-%discuss $\frac{c^2}{n^2}$, except how in practice the chance of owning
-%the last hop is not $c/n$ since that doesn't take the destination (website)
-%into account. so in cases where the adversary does not also control the
-%final destination we're in good shape, but if he *does* then we'd be better
-%off with a system that lets each hop choose a path.
-%
-%Isn't it more accurate to say ``If the adversary _always_ controls the final
-% dest, we would be just as well off with such as system.'' ?  If not, why
-% not? -nm
-% Sure. In fact, better off, since they seem to scale more easily. -rd
-
-%Murdoch and Danezis describe an attack
-%\cite{attack-tor-oak05} that lets an attacker determine the nodes used
-%in a circuit; yet s/he cannot identify the initiator or responder,
-%e.g., client or web server, through this attack. So the endpoints
-%remain secure, which is the goal. It is conceivable that an
-%adversary could attack or set up observation of all connections
-%to an arbitrary Tor node in only a few minutes.  If such an adversary
-%were to exist, s/he could use this probing to remotely identify a node
-%for further attack.  Of more likely immediate practical concern
-%an adversary with active access to the responder traffic
-%wants to keep a circuit alive long enough to attack an identified
-%node. Thus it is important to prevent the responding end of the circuit
-%from keeping it open indefinitely. 
-%Also, someone could identify nodes in this way and if in their
-%jurisdiction, immediately get a subpoena (if they even need one)
-%telling the node operator(s) that she must retain all the active
-%circuit data she now has.
-%Further, the enclave model, which had previously looked to be the most
-%generally secure, seems particularly threatened by this attack, since
-%it identifies endpoints when they're also nodes in the Tor network:
-%see Section~\ref{subsec:helper-nodes} for discussion of some ways to
-%address this issue.
-
-\medskip
-\noindent
-{\bf Distributed trust.}
-In practice Tor's threat model is based on
-dispersal and diversity.
-Our defense lies in having a diverse enough set of nodes
-to prevent most real-world
-adversaries from being in the right places to attack users,
-by distributing each transaction
-over several nodes in the network.  This ``distributed trust'' approach
-means the Tor network can be safely operated and used by a wide variety
-of mutually distrustful users, providing sustainability and security.
-%than some previous attempts at anonymizing networks.
-
-%No organization can achieve this security on its own.  If a single
-%corporation or government agency were to build a private network to
-%protect its operations, any connections entering or leaving that network
-%would be obviously linkable to the controlling organization.  The members
-%and operations of that agency would be easier, not harder, to distinguish.
-
-To protect our networks from traffic analysis, we must
-collaboratively blend the traffic from many organizations and private
-citizens, so that an eavesdropper can't tell which users are which,
-and who is looking for what information.  %By bringing more users onto
-%the network, all users become more secure~\cite{econymics}.
-%[XXX I feel uncomfortable saying this last sentence now. -RD]
-%[So, I took it out. I think we can do without it. -PFS]
-The Tor network has a broad range of users, including ordinary citizens
-concerned about their privacy, corporations
-who don't want to reveal information to their competitors, and law
-enforcement and government intelligence agencies who need
-to do operations on the Internet without being noticed.
-Naturally, organizations will not want to depend on others for their
-security.  If most participating providers are reliable, Tor tolerates
-some hostile infiltration of the network.  For maximum protection,
-the Tor design includes an enclave approach that lets data be encrypted
-(and authenticated) end-to-end, so high-sensitivity users can be sure it
-hasn't been read or modified.  This even works for Internet services that
-don't have built-in encryption and authentication, such as unencrypted
-HTTP or chat, and it requires no modification of those services.
-
-%\subsection{Related work}
-Tor differs from other deployed systems for traffic analysis resistance
-in its security and flexibility.  Mix networks such as
-Mixmaster~\cite{mixmaster-spec} or its successor Mixminion~\cite{minion-design}
-gain the highest degrees of anonymity at the expense of introducing highly
-variable delays, making them unsuitable for applications such as web
-browsing.  Commercial single-hop
-proxies~\cite{anonymizer} can provide good performance, but
-a single compromise can expose all users' traffic, and a single-point
-eavesdropper can perform traffic analysis on the entire network.
-%Also, their proprietary implementations place any infrastructure that
-%depends on these single-hop solutions at the mercy of their providers'
-%financial health as well as network security.
-The Java
-Anon Proxy (JAP)~\cite{web-mix} provides similar functionality to Tor but
-handles only web browsing rather than all TCP\@. Because all traffic
-passes through fixed ``cascades'' for which the endpoints are predictable,
-an adversary can know where to watch for traffic analysis from particular
-clients or to particular web servers. The design calls for padding to
-complicate this, although it does not appear to be implemented.
-%Some peer-to-peer file-sharing overlay networks such as
-%Freenet~\cite{freenet} and Mute~\cite{mute}
-The Freedom 
-network from Zero-Knowledge Systems~\cite{freedom21-security}
-was even more flexible than Tor in
-transporting arbitrary IP packets, and also supported
-pseudonymity in addition to anonymity; but it had
-a different approach to sustainability (collecting money from users
-and paying ISPs to run Tor nodes), and was eventually shut down due to financial
-load.  Finally, %potentially more scalable
-% [I had added 'potentially' because the scalability of these designs
-% is not established, and I am uncomfortable making the
-% bolder unmodified assertion. Roger took 'potentially' out.
-% Here's an attempt at more neutral wording -pfs]
-peer-to-peer designs that are intended to be more scalable,
-for example Tarzan~\cite{tarzan:ccs02} and
-MorphMix~\cite{morphmix:fc04}, have been proposed in the literature but
-have not been fielded. These systems differ somewhat
-in threat model and presumably practical resistance to threats.
-%
-% Matt suggests cutting some or all of the rest of this paragraph. -PFS
-%
-Note that MorphMix differs from Tor only in
-node discovery and circuit setup; so Tor's architecture is flexible
-enough to contain a MorphMix experiment. Recently, 
-Tor has adopted from MorphMix the approach of making it harder to
-own both ends of a circuit by requiring that nodes be chosen from
-different /16 subnets. This requires
-an adversary to own nodes in multiple address ranges to even have the
-possibility of observing both ends of a circuit.  We direct the
-interested reader to~\cite{tor-design} for a more in-depth review of
-related work.
-
-%XXXX six-four. crowds. i2p.
-
-%XXXX
-%have a serious discussion of morphmix's assumptions, since they would
-%seem to be the direct competition. in fact tor is a flexible architecture
-%that would encompass morphmix, and they're nearly identical except for
-%path selection and node discovery. and the trust system morphmix has
-%seems overkill (and/or insecure) based on the threat model we've picked.
-% this para should probably move to the scalability / directory system. -RD
-% Nope. Cut for space, except for small comment added above -PFS
-
-\section{Social challenges}
-
-Many of the issues the Tor project needs to address extend beyond
-system design and technology development. In particular, the
-Tor project's \emph{image} with respect to its users and the rest of
-the Internet impacts the security it can provide.
-With this image issue in mind, this section discusses the Tor user base and
-Tor's interaction with other services on the Internet.
-
-\subsection{Communicating security}
-
-Usability for anonymity systems
-contributes to their security, because usability
-affects the possible anonymity set~\cite{econymics,back01}.
-Conversely, an unusable system attracts few users and thus can't provide
-much anonymity.
-
-This phenomenon has a second-order effect: knowing this, users should
-choose which anonymity system to use based in part on how usable
-and secure
-\emph{others} will find it, in order to get the protection of a larger
-anonymity set. Thus we might supplement the adage ``usability is a security
-parameter''~\cite{back01} with a new one: ``perceived usability is a
-security parameter.''~\cite{usability-network-effect}.
-% From here we can better understand the effects
-%of publicity on security: the more convincing your
-%advertising, the more likely people will believe you have users, and thus
-%the more users you will attract. Perversely, over-hyped systems (if they
-%are not too broken) may be a better choice than modestly promoted ones,
-%if the hype attracts more users~\cite{usability-network-effect}.
-
-%So it follows that we should come up with ways to accurately communicate
-%the available security levels to the user, so she can make informed
-%decisions.
-%JAP aims to do this by including a
-%comforting `anonymity meter' dial in the software's graphical interface,
-%giving the user an impression of the level of protection for her current
-%traffic.
-
-However, there's a catch. For users to share the same anonymity set,
-they need to act like each other. An attacker who can distinguish
-a given user's traffic from the rest of the traffic will not be
-distracted by anonymity set size. For high-latency systems like
-Mixminion, where the threat model is based on mixing messages with each
-other, there's an arms race between end-to-end statistical attacks and
-counter-strategies~\cite{statistical-disclosure,minion-design,e2e-traffic,trickle02}.
-But for low-latency systems like Tor, end-to-end \emph{traffic
-correlation} attacks~\cite{danezis:pet2004,defensive-dropping,SS03,hs-attack}
-allow an attacker who can observe both ends of a communication
-to correlate packet timing and volume, quickly linking
-the initiator to her destination.
-
-\workingnote{
-Like Tor, the current JAP implementation does not pad connections
-apart from using small fixed-size cells for transport. In fact,
-JAP's cascade-based network topology may be more vulnerable to these
-attacks, because its network has fewer edges. JAP was born out of
-the ISDN mix design~\cite{isdn-mixes}, where padding made sense because
-every user had a fixed bandwidth allocation and altering the timing
-pattern of packets could be immediately detected. But in its current context
-as an Internet web anonymizer, adding sufficient padding to JAP
-would probably be prohibitively expensive and ineffective against a
-minimally active attacker.\footnote{Even if JAP could
-fund higher-capacity nodes indefinitely, our experience
-suggests that many users would not accept the increased per-user
-bandwidth requirements, leading to an overall much smaller user base.}
-Therefore, since under this threat
-model the number of concurrent users does not seem to have much impact
-on the anonymity provided, we suggest that JAP's anonymity meter is not
-accurately communicating security levels to its users.
-
-On the other hand, while the number of active concurrent users may not
-matter as much as we'd like, it still helps to have some other users
-on the network, in particular different types of users.
-We investigate this issue next.
-}
-\subsection{Reputability and perceived social value}
-Another factor impacting the network's security is its reputability:
-the perception of its social value based on its current user base. If Alice is
-the only user who has ever downloaded the software, it might be socially
-accepted, but she's not getting much anonymity. Add a thousand
-activists, and she's anonymous, but everyone thinks she's an activist too.
-Add a thousand
-diverse citizens (cancer survivors, privacy enthusiasts, and so on)
-and now she's harder to profile.
-
-Furthermore, the network's reputability affects its operator base: more people
-are willing to run a service if they believe it will be used by human rights
-workers than if they believe it will be used exclusively for disreputable
-ends.  This effect becomes stronger if node operators themselves think they
-will be associated with their users' disreputable ends.
-
-So the more cancer survivors on Tor, the better for the human rights
-activists. The more malicious hackers, the worse for the normal users. Thus,
-reputability is an anonymity issue for two reasons. First, it impacts
-the sustainability of the network: a network that's always about to be
-shut down has difficulty attracting and keeping adequate nodes.
-Second, a disreputable network is more vulnerable to legal and
-political attacks, since it will attract fewer supporters.
-
-\workingnote{
-While people therefore have an incentive for the network to be used for
-``more reputable'' activities than their own, there are still trade-offs
-involved when it comes to anonymity. To follow the above example, a
-network used entirely by cancer survivors might welcome file sharers
-onto the network, though of course they'd prefer a wider
-variety of users.
-}
-Reputability becomes even more tricky in the case of privacy networks,
-since the good uses of the network (such as publishing by journalists in
-dangerous countries) are typically kept private, whereas network abuses
-or other problems tend to be more widely publicized.
-
-\workingnote{
-The impact of public perception on security is especially important
-during the bootstrapping phase of the network, where the first few
-widely publicized uses of the network can dictate the types of users it
-attracts next.
-As an example, some U.S.~Department of Energy
-penetration testing engineers are tasked with compromising DoE computers
-from the outside. They only have a limited number of ISPs from which to
-launch their attacks, and they found that the defenders were recognizing
-attacks because they came from the same IP space. These engineers wanted
-to use Tor to hide their tracks. First, from a technical standpoint,
-Tor does not support the variety of IP packets one would like to use in
-such attacks.% (see Section~\ref{subsec:tcp-vs-ip}).
-But aside from this, we also decided that it would probably be poor
-precedent to encourage such use---even legal use that improves
-national security---and managed to dissuade them.
-}
-%% "outside of academia, jap has just lost, permanently".  (That is,
-%% even though the crime detection issues are resolved and are unlikely
-%% to go down the same way again, public perception has not been kind.)
-
-\subsection{Sustainability and incentives}
-One of the unsolved problems in low-latency anonymity designs is
-how to keep the nodes running.  ZKS's Freedom network
-depended on paying third parties to run its servers; the JAP project's
-bandwidth depends on grants to pay for its bandwidth and
-administrative expenses.  In Tor, bandwidth and administrative costs are
-distributed across the volunteers who run Tor nodes, so we at least have
-reason to think that the Tor network could survive without continued research
-funding.\footnote{It also helps that Tor is implemented with free and open
-  source software that can be maintained by anybody with the ability and
-  inclination.}  But why are these volunteers running nodes, and what can we
-do to encourage more volunteers to do so?
-
-We have not formally surveyed Tor node operators to learn why they are
-running nodes, but
-from the information they have provided, it seems that many of them run Tor
-nodes for reasons of personal interest in privacy issues.  It is possible
-that others are running Tor nodes to protect their own
-anonymity, but of course they are
-hardly likely to tell us specifics if they are.
-%Significantly, Tor's threat model changes the anonymity incentives for running
-%a node.  In a high-latency mix network, users can receive additional
-%anonymity by running their own node, since doing so obscures when they are
-%injecting messages into the network.  But, anybody observing all I/O to a Tor
-%node can tell when the node is generating traffic that corresponds to
-%none of its incoming traffic.
-%
-%I didn't buy the above for reason's subtle enough that I just cut it -PFS
-Tor exit node operators do attain a degree of
-``deniability'' for traffic that originates at that exit node.  For
-  example, it is likely in practice that HTTP requests from a Tor node's IP
-  will be assumed to be from the Tor network.
-  More significantly, people and organizations who use Tor for
-  anonymity depend on the
-  continued existence of the Tor network to do so; running a node helps to
-  keep the network operational.
-%\item Local Tor entry and exit nodes allow users on a network to run in an
-%  `enclave' configuration.  [XXXX need to resolve this. They would do this
-%   for E2E encryption + auth?]
-
-
-%We must try to make the costs of running a Tor node easily minimized.
-Since Tor is run by volunteers, the most crucial software usability issue is
-usability by operators: when an operator leaves, the network becomes less
-usable by everybody.  To keep operators pleased, we must try to keep Tor's
-resource and administrative demands as low as possible.
-
-Because of ISP billing structures, many Tor operators have underused capacity
-that they are willing to donate to the network, at no additional monetary
-cost to them.  Features to limit bandwidth have been essential to adoption.
-Also useful has been a ``hibernation'' feature that allows a Tor node that
-wants to provide high bandwidth, but no more than a certain amount in a
-given billing cycle, to become dormant once its bandwidth is exhausted, and
-to reawaken at a random offset into the next billing cycle.
-Exit policies help to limit administrative costs by limiting the frequency of
-abuse complaints (see Section~\ref{subsec:tor-and-blacklists}).
-% We discuss
-%technical incentive mechanisms in Section~\ref{subsec:incentives-by-design}.
-
-%[XXXX say more.  Why else would you run a node? What else can we do/do we
-%  already do to make running a node more attractive?]
-%[We can enforce incentives; see Section 6.1. We can rate-limit clients.
-%  We can put "top bandwidth nodes lists" up a la seti@home.]
-
-\workingnote{
-\subsection{Bandwidth and file-sharing}
-\label{subsec:bandwidth-and-file-sharing}
-%One potentially problematical area with deploying Tor has been our response
-%to file-sharing applications.
-Once users have configured their applications to work with Tor, the largest
-remaining usability issue is performance.  Users begin to suffer
-when websites ``feel slow.''
-Clients currently try to build their connections through nodes that they
-guess will have enough bandwidth.  But even if capacity is allocated
-optimally, it seems unlikely that the current network architecture will have
-enough capacity to provide every user with as much bandwidth as she would
-receive if she weren't using Tor, unless far more nodes join the network.
-
-%Limited capacity does not destroy the network, however.  Instead, usage tends
-%towards an equilibrium: when performance suffers, users who value performance
-%over anonymity tend to leave the system, thus freeing capacity until the
-%remaining users on the network are exactly those willing to use that capacity
-%there is.
-
-Much of Tor's recent bandwidth difficulties have come from file-sharing
-applications.  These applications provide two challenges to
-any anonymizing network: their intensive bandwidth requirement, and the
-degree to which they are associated (correctly or not) with copyright
-infringement.
-
-High-bandwidth protocols can make the network unresponsive,
-but tend to be somewhat self-correcting as lack of bandwidth drives away
-users who need it.  Issues of copyright violation,
-however, are more interesting.  Typical exit node operators want to help
-people achieve private and anonymous speech, not to help people (say) host
-Vin Diesel movies for download; and typical ISPs would rather not
-deal with customers who draw menacing letters
-from the MPAA\@.  While it is quite likely that the operators are doing nothing
-illegal, many ISPs have policies of dropping users who get repeated legal
-threats regardless of the merits of those threats, and many operators would
-prefer to avoid receiving even meritless legal threats.
-So when letters arrive, operators are likely to face
-pressure to block file-sharing applications entirely, in order to avoid the
-hassle.
-
-But blocking file-sharing is not easy: popular
-protocols have evolved to run on non-standard ports to
-get around other port-based bans.  Thus, exit node operators who want to
-block file-sharing would have to find some way to integrate Tor with a
-protocol-aware exit filter.  This could be a technically expensive
-undertaking, and one with poor prospects: it is unlikely that Tor exit nodes
-would succeed where so many institutional firewalls have failed.  Another
-possibility for sensitive operators is to run a restrictive node that
-only permits exit connections to a restricted range of ports that are
-not frequently associated with file sharing.  There are increasingly few such
-ports.
-
-Other possible approaches might include rate-limiting connections, especially
-long-lived connections or connections to file-sharing ports, so that
-high-bandwidth connections do not flood the network.  We might also want to
-give priority to cells on low-bandwidth connections to keep them interactive,
-but this could have negative anonymity implications.
-
-For the moment, it seems that Tor's bandwidth issues have rendered it
-unattractive for bulk file-sharing traffic; this may continue to be so in the
-future.  Nevertheless, Tor will likely remain attractive for limited use in
-file-sharing protocols that have separate control and data channels.
-
-%[We should say more -- but what?  That we'll see a similar
-%  equilibriating effect as with bandwidth, where sensitive ops switch to
-%  middleman, and we become less useful for file-sharing, so the file-sharing
-%  people back off, so we get more ops since there's less file-sharing, so the
-%  file-sharers come back, etc.]
-
-%XXXX
-%in practice, plausible deniability is hypothetical and doesn't seem very
-%convincing. if ISPs find the activity antisocial, they don't care *why*
-%your computer is doing that behavior.
-}
-
-\subsection{Tor and blacklists}
-\label{subsec:tor-and-blacklists}
-
-It was long expected that, alongside legitimate users, Tor would also
-attract troublemakers who exploit Tor to abuse services on the
-Internet with vandalism, rude mail, and so on.
-Our initial answer to this situation was to use ``exit policies''
-to allow individual Tor nodes to block access to specific IP/port ranges.
-This approach aims to make operators more willing to run Tor by allowing
-them to prevent their nodes from being used for abusing particular
-services.  For example, by default Tor nodes block SMTP (port 25),
-to avoid the issue of spam. 
-\workingnote{
-Note that for spammers, Tor would be 
-a step back, a much less effective means of distributing spam than
-those currently available. This is thus primarily an unmistakable
-answer to those confused about Internet communication who might raise
-spam as an issue.
-}
-
-Exit policies are useful, but they are insufficient: if not all nodes
-block a given service, that service may try to block Tor instead.
-While being blockable is important to being good netizens, we would like
-to encourage services to allow anonymous access. Services should not
-need to decide between blocking legitimate anonymous use and allowing
-unlimited abuse. For the time being, blocking by IP address is
-an expedient strategy, even if it undermines Internet stability and
-functionality in the long run~\cite{netauth}
-
-This is potentially a bigger problem than it may appear.
-On the one hand, services should be allowed to refuse connections from
-sources of possible abuse.
-But when a Tor node administrator decides whether he prefers to be able
-to post to Wikipedia from his IP address, or to allow people to read
-Wikipedia anonymously through his Tor node, he is making the decision
-for others as well. (For a while, Wikipedia
-blocked all posting from all Tor nodes based on IP addresses.) If
-the Tor node shares an address with a campus or corporate NAT,
-then the decision can prevent the entire population from posting.
-Similarly, whether intended or not, such blocking supports
-repression of free speech. In many locations where Internet access
-of various kinds is censored or even punished by imprisonment,
-Tor is a path both to the outside world and to others inside.
-Blocking posts from Tor makes the job of censoring authorities easier.
-This is a loss for both Tor
-and Wikipedia: we don't want to compete for (or divvy up) the
-NAT-protected entities of the world.
-This is also unfortunate because there are relatively simple technical
-solutions.
-Various schemes for escrowing anonymous posts until they are reviewed
-by editors would both prevent abuse and remove incentives for attempts
-to abuse. Further, pseudonymous reputation tracking of posters through Tor
-would allow those who establish adequate reputation to post without
-escrow. 
-\workingnote{
-Software to support pseudonymous access via Tor designed precisely
-to interact with Wikipedia's access mechanism has even been developed
-and proposed to Wikimedia by Jason Holt~\cite{nym}, but has not been taken up.
-
-
-Perhaps worse, many IP blacklists are coarse-grained: they ignore Tor's exit
-policies, partly because it's easier to implement and partly
-so they can punish
-all Tor nodes. One IP blacklist even bans
-every class C network that contains a Tor node, and recommends banning SMTP
-from these networks even though Tor does not allow SMTP at all.  This
-strategic decision aims to discourage the
-operation of anything resembling an open proxy by encouraging its neighbors
-to shut it down to get unblocked themselves. This pressure even
-affects Tor nodes running in middleman mode (disallowing all exits) when
-those nodes are blacklisted too.
-% Perception of Tor as an abuse vector
-%is also partly driven by multiple base-rate fallacies~\cite{axelsson00}.
-}
-
-Problems of abuse occur mainly with services such as IRC networks and
-Wikipedia, which rely on IP blocking to ban abusive users.  While at first
-blush this practice might seem to depend on the anachronistic assumption that
-each IP is an identifier for a single user, it is actually more reasonable in
-practice: it assumes that non-proxy IPs are a costly resource, and that an
-abuser can not change IPs at will.  By blocking IPs which are used by Tor
-nodes, open proxies, and service abusers, these systems hope to make
-ongoing abuse difficult.  Although the system is imperfect, it works
-tolerably well for them in practice.
-
-Of course, we would prefer that legitimate anonymous users be able to
-access abuse-prone services. 
-\workingnote{
- One conceivable approach would require
-would-be IRC users, for instance, to register accounts if they want to
-access the IRC network from Tor.  In practice this would not
-significantly impede abuse if creating new accounts were easily automatable;
-this is why services use IP blocking.  To deter abuse, pseudonymous
-identities need to require a significant switching cost in resources or human
-time.  Some popular webmail applications
-impose cost with Reverse Turing Tests, but this step may not deter all
-abusers.  Freedom used blind signatures to limit
-the number of pseudonyms for each paying account, but Tor has neither the
-ability nor the desire to collect payment.
-}
-We stress that as far as we can tell, most Tor uses are not
-abusive. Most services have not complained, and others are actively
-working to find ways besides banning to cope with the abuse. For example,
-the Freenode IRC network had a problem with a coordinated group of
-abusers joining channels and subtly taking over the conversation; but
-when they labelled all users coming from Tor IPs as ``anonymous users,''
-removing the ability of the abusers to blend in, the abuse stopped.
-This is an illustration of how simple technical mechanisms can remove
-the ability to abuse anonymously without undermining the ability
-to communicate anonymously and can thus remove the incentive to attempt
-abusing in this way.
-
-%The use of squishy IP-based ``authentication'' and ``authorization''
-%has not broken down even to the level that SSNs used for these
-%purposes have in commercial and public record contexts. Externalities
-%and misplaced incentives cause a continued focus on fighting identity
-%theft by protecting SSNs rather than developing better authentication
-%and incentive schemes \cite{price-privacy}. Similarly we can expect a
-%continued use of identification by IP number as long as there is no
-%workable alternative.
-
-%[XXX Mention correct DNS-RBL implementation. -NM]
-
-\workingnote{
-\section{Design choices}
-
-In addition to social issues, Tor also faces some design trade-offs that must
-be investigated as the network develops.
-
-\subsection{Transporting the stream vs transporting the packets}
-\label{subsec:stream-vs-packet}
-\label{subsec:tcp-vs-ip}
-
-Tor transports streams; it does not tunnel packets.
-It has often been suggested that like the old Freedom
-network~\cite{freedom21-security}, Tor should
-``obviously'' anonymize IP traffic
-at the IP layer. Before this could be done, many issues need to be resolved:
-
-\begin{enumerate}
-\setlength{\itemsep}{0mm}
-\setlength{\parsep}{0mm}
-\item \emph{IP packets reveal OS characteristics.}  We would still need to do
-IP-level packet normalization, to stop things like TCP fingerprinting
-attacks. %There likely exist libraries that can help with this.
-This is unlikely to be a trivial task, given the diversity and complexity of
-TCP stacks.
-\item \emph{Application-level streams still need scrubbing.} We still need
-Tor to be easy to integrate with user-level application-specific proxies
-such as Privoxy. So it's not just a matter of capturing packets and
-anonymizing them at the IP layer.
-\item \emph{Certain protocols will still leak information.} For example, we
-must rewrite DNS requests so they are delivered to an unlinkable DNS server
-rather than the DNS server at a user's ISP; thus, we must understand the
-protocols we are transporting.
-\item \emph{The crypto is unspecified.} First we need a block-level encryption
-approach that can provide security despite
-packet loss and out-of-order delivery. Freedom allegedly had one, but it was
-never publicly specified.
-Also, TLS over UDP is not yet implemented or
-specified, though some early work has begun~\cite{dtls}.
-\item \emph{We'll still need to tune network parameters.} Since the above
-encryption system will likely need sequence numbers (and maybe more) to do
-replay detection, handle duplicate frames, and so on, we will be reimplementing
-a subset of TCP anyway---a notoriously tricky path.
-\item \emph{Exit policies for arbitrary IP packets mean building a secure
-IDS\@.}  Our node operators tell us that exit policies are one of
-the main reasons they're willing to run Tor.
-Adding an Intrusion Detection System to handle exit policies would
-increase the security complexity of Tor, and would likely not work anyway,
-as evidenced by the entire field of IDS and counter-IDS papers. Many
-potential abuse issues are resolved by the fact that Tor only transports
-valid TCP streams (as opposed to arbitrary IP including malformed packets
-and IP floods), so exit policies become even \emph{more} important as
-we become able to transport IP packets. We also need to compactly
-describe exit policies so clients can predict
-which nodes will allow which packets to exit.
-\item \emph{The Tor-internal name spaces would need to be redesigned.} We
-support hidden service {\tt{.onion}} addresses (and other special addresses,
-like {\tt{.exit}} which lets the user request a particular exit node),
-by intercepting the addresses when they are passed to the Tor client.
-Doing so at the IP level would require a more complex interface between
-Tor and the local DNS resolver.
-\end{enumerate}
-
-This list is discouragingly long, but being able to transport more
-protocols obviously has some advantages. It would be good to learn which
-items are actual roadblocks and which are easier to resolve than we think.
-
-To be fair, Tor's stream-based approach has run into
-stumbling blocks as well. While Tor supports the SOCKS protocol,
-which provides a standardized interface for generic TCP proxies, many
-applications do not support SOCKS\@. For them we already need to
-replace the networking system calls with SOCKS-aware
-versions, or run a SOCKS tunnel locally, neither of which is
-easy for the average user. %---even with good instructions.
-Even when applications can use SOCKS, they often make DNS requests
-themselves before handing an IP address to Tor, which advertises
-where the user is about to connect.
-We are still working on more usable solutions.
-
-%So to actually provide good anonymity, we need to make sure that
-%users have a practical way to use Tor anonymously.  Possibilities include
-%writing wrappers for applications to anonymize them automatically; improving
-%the applications' support for SOCKS; writing libraries to help application
-%writers use Tor properly; and implementing a local DNS proxy to reroute DNS
-%requests to Tor so that applications can simply point their DNS resolvers at
-%localhost and continue to use SOCKS for data only.
-
-\subsection{Mid-latency}
-\label{subsec:mid-latency}
-
-Some users need to resist traffic correlation attacks.  Higher-latency
-mix-networks introduce variability into message
-arrival times: as timing variance increases, timing correlation attacks
-require increasingly more data~\cite{e2e-traffic}. Can we improve Tor's
-resistance without losing too much usability?
-
-We need to learn whether we can trade a small increase in latency
-for a large anonymity increase, or if we'd end up trading a lot of
-latency for only a minimal security gain. A trade-off might be worthwhile
-even if we
-could only protect certain use cases, such as infrequent short-duration
-transactions. % To answer this question
-We might adapt the techniques of~\cite{e2e-traffic} to a lower-latency mix
-network, where the messages are batches of cells in temporally clustered
-connections. These large fixed-size batches can also help resist volume
-signature attacks~\cite{hintz-pet02}. We could also experiment with traffic
-shaping to get a good balance of throughput and security.
-%Other padding regimens might supplement the
-%mid-latency option; however, we should continue the caution with which
-%we have always approached padding lest the overhead cost us too much
-%performance or too many volunteers.
-
-We must keep usability in mind too. How much can latency increase
-before we drive users away? We've already been forced to increase
-latency slightly, as our growing network incorporates more DSL and
-cable-modem nodes and more nodes in distant continents. Perhaps we can
-harness this increased latency to improve anonymity rather than just
-reduce usability. Further, if we let clients label certain circuits as
-mid-latency as they are constructed, we could handle both types of traffic
-on the same network, giving users a choice between speed and security---and
-giving researchers a chance to experiment with parameters to improve the
-quality of those choices.
-
-\subsection{Enclaves and helper nodes}
-\label{subsec:helper-nodes}
-
-It has long been thought that users can improve their anonymity by
-running their own node~\cite{tor-design,or-ih96,or-pet00}, and using
-it in an \emph{enclave} configuration, where all their circuits begin
-at the node under their control. Running Tor clients or servers at
-the enclave perimeter is useful when policy or other requirements
-prevent individual machines within the enclave from running Tor
-clients~\cite{or-jsac98,or-discex00}.
-
-Of course, Tor's default path length of
-three is insufficient for these enclaves, since the entry and/or exit
-% [edit war: without the ``and/'' the natural reading here
-% is aut rather than vel. And the use of the plural verb does not work -pfs]
-themselves are sensitive. Tor thus increments path length by one
-for each sensitive endpoint in the circuit.
-Enclaves also help to protect against end-to-end attacks, since it's
-possible that traffic coming from the node has simply been relayed from
-elsewhere. However, if the node has recognizable behavior patterns,
-an attacker who runs nodes in the network can triangulate over time to
-gain confidence that it is in fact originating the traffic. Wright et
-al.~\cite{wright03} introduce the notion of a \emph{helper node}---a
-single fixed entry node for each user---to combat this \emph{predecessor
-attack}.
-
-However, the attack in~\cite{attack-tor-oak05} shows that simply adding
-to the path length, or using a helper node, may not protect an enclave
-node. A hostile web server can send constant interference traffic to
-all nodes in the network, and learn which nodes are involved in the
-circuit (though at least in the current attack, he can't learn their
-order). Using randomized path lengths may help some, since the attacker
-will never be certain he has identified all nodes in the path unless
-he probes the entire network, but as
-long as the network remains small this attack will still be feasible.
-
-Helper nodes also aim to help Tor clients, because choosing entry and exit
-points
-randomly and changing them frequently allows an attacker who controls
-even a few nodes to eventually link some of their destinations. The goal
-is to take the risk once and for all about choosing a bad entry node,
-rather than taking a new risk for each new circuit. (Choosing fixed
-exit nodes is less useful, since even an honest exit node still doesn't
-protect against a hostile website.) But obstacles remain before
-we can implement helper nodes.
-For one, the literature does not describe how to choose helpers from a list
-of nodes that changes over time.  If Alice is forced to choose a new entry
-helper every $d$ days and $c$ of the $n$ nodes are bad, she can expect
-to choose a compromised node around
-every $dc/n$ days. Statistically over time this approach only helps
-if she is better at choosing honest helper nodes than at choosing
-honest nodes.  Worse, an attacker with the ability to DoS nodes could
-force users to switch helper nodes more frequently, or remove
-other candidate helpers.
-
-%Do general DoS attacks have anonymity implications? See e.g. Adam
-%Back's IH paper, but I think there's more to be pointed out here. -RD
-% Not sure what you want to say here. -NM
-
-%Game theory for helper nodes: if Alice offers a hidden service on a
-%server (enclave model), and nobody ever uses helper nodes, then against
-%George+Steven's attack she's totally nailed. If only Alice uses a helper
-%node, then she's still identified as the source of the data. If everybody
-%uses a helper node (including Alice), then the attack identifies the
-%helper node and also Alice, and knows which one is which. If everybody
-%uses a helper node (but not Alice), then the attacker figures the real
-%source was a client that is using Alice as a helper node. [How's my
-%logic here?] -RD
-%
-% Not sure about the logic.  For the attack to work with helper nodes, the
-%attacker needs to guess that Alice is running the hidden service, right?
-%Otherwise, how can he know to measure her traffic specifically? -NM
-%
-% In the Murdoch-Danezis attack, the adversary measures all servers. -RD
-
-%point to routing-zones section re: helper nodes to defend against
-%big stuff.
-
-\subsection{Location-hidden services}
-\label{subsec:hidden-services}
-
-% This section is first up against the wall when the revolution comes.
-
-Tor's \emph{rendezvous points}
-let users provide TCP services to other Tor users without revealing
-the service's location. Since this feature is relatively recent, we describe
-here
-a couple of our early observations from its deployment.
-
-First, our implementation of hidden services seems less hidden than we'd
-like, since they build a different rendezvous circuit for each user,
-and an external adversary can induce them to
-produce traffic. This insecurity means that they may not be suitable as
-a building block for Free Haven~\cite{freehaven-berk} or other anonymous
-publishing systems that aim to provide long-term security, though helper
-nodes, as discussed above, would seem to help.
-
-\emph{Hot-swap} hidden services, where more than one location can
-provide the service and loss of any one location does not imply a
-change in service, would help foil intersection and observation attacks
-where an adversary monitors availability of a hidden service and also
-monitors whether certain users or servers are online. The design
-challenges in providing such services without otherwise compromising
-the hidden service's anonymity remain an open problem;
-however, see~\cite{move-ndss05}.
-
-In practice, hidden services are used for more than just providing private
-access to a web server or IRC server. People are using hidden services
-as a poor man's VPN and firewall-buster. Many people want to be able
-to connect to the computers in their private network via secure shell,
-and rather than playing with dyndns and trying to pierce holes in their
-firewall, they run a hidden service on the inside and then rendezvous
-with that hidden service externally.
-
-News sites like Bloggers Without Borders (www.b19s.org) are advertising
-a hidden-service address on their front page. Doing this can provide
-increased robustness if they use the dual-IP approach we describe
-in~\cite{tor-design},
-but in practice they do it to increase visibility
-of the Tor project and their support for privacy, and to offer
-a way for their users, using unmodified software, to get end-to-end
-encryption and authentication to their website.
-
-\subsection{Location diversity and ISP-class adversaries}
-\label{subsec:routing-zones}
-
-Anonymity networks have long relied on diversity of node location for
-protection against attacks---typically an adversary who can observe a
-larger fraction of the network can launch a more effective attack. One
-way to achieve dispersal involves growing the network so a given adversary
-sees less. Alternately, we can arrange the topology so traffic can enter
-or exit at many places (for example, by using a free-route network
-like Tor rather than a cascade network like JAP). Lastly, we can use
-distributed trust to spread each transaction over multiple jurisdictions.
-But how do we decide whether two nodes are in related locations?
-
-Feamster and Dingledine defined a \emph{location diversity} metric
-in~\cite{feamster:wpes2004}, and began investigating a variant of location
-diversity based on the fact that the Internet is divided into thousands of
-independently operated networks called {\em autonomous systems} (ASes).
-The key insight from their paper is that while we typically think of a
-connection as going directly from the Tor client to the first Tor node,
-actually it traverses many different ASes on each hop. An adversary at
-any of these ASes can monitor or influence traffic. Specifically, given
-plausible initiators and recipients, and given random path selection,
-some ASes in the simulation were able to observe 10\% to 30\% of the
-transactions (that is, learn both the origin and the destination) on
-the deployed Tor network (33 nodes as of June 2004).
-
-The paper concludes that for best protection against the AS-level
-adversary, nodes should be in ASes that have the most links to other ASes:
-Tier-1 ISPs such as AT\&T and Abovenet. Further, a given transaction
-is safest when it starts or ends in a Tier-1 ISP\@. Therefore, assuming
-initiator and responder are both in the U.S., it actually \emph{hurts}
-our location diversity to use far-flung nodes in
-continents like Asia or South America.
-% it's not just entering or exiting from them. using them as the middle
-% hop reduces your effective path length, which you presumably don't
-% want because you chose that path length for a reason.
-%
-% Not sure I buy that argument. Two end nodes in the right ASs to
-% discourage linking are still not known to each other. If some
-% adversary in a single AS can bridge the middle node, it shouldn't
-% therefore be able to identify initiator or responder; although it could
-% contribute to further attacks given more assumptions.
-% Nonetheless, no change to the actual text for now.
-
-Many open questions remain. First, it will be an immense engineering
-challenge to get an entire BGP routing table to each Tor client, or to
-summarize it sufficiently. Without a local copy, clients won't be
-able to safely predict what ASes will be traversed on the various paths
-through the Tor network to the final destination. Tarzan~\cite{tarzan:ccs02}
-and MorphMix~\cite{morphmix:fc04} suggest that we compare IP prefixes to
-determine location diversity; but the above paper showed that in practice
-many of the Mixmaster nodes that share a single AS have entirely different
-IP prefixes. When the network has scaled to thousands of nodes, does IP
-prefix comparison become a more useful approximation? % Alternatively, can
-%relevant parts of the routing tables be summarized centrally and delivered to
-%clients in a less verbose format?
-%% i already said "or to summarize is sufficiently" above. is that not
-%% enough? -RD
-%
-Second, we can take advantage of caching certain content at the
-exit nodes, to limit the number of requests that need to leave the
-network at all. What about taking advantage of caches like Akamai or
-Google~\cite{shsm03}? (Note that they're also well-positioned as global
-adversaries.)
-%
-Third, if we follow the recommendations in~\cite{feamster:wpes2004}
- and tailor path selection
-to avoid choosing endpoints in similar locations, how much are we hurting
-anonymity against larger real-world adversaries who can take advantage
-of knowing our algorithm?
-%
-Fourth, can we use this knowledge to figure out which gaps in our network
-most affect our robustness to this class of attack, and go recruit
-new nodes with those ASes in mind?
-
-%Tor's security relies in large part on the dispersal properties of its
-%network. We need to be more aware of the anonymity properties of various
-%approaches so we can make better design decisions in the future.
-
-\subsection{The Anti-censorship problem}
-\label{subsec:china}
-
-Citizens in a variety of countries, such as most recently China and
-Iran, are blocked from accessing various sites outside
-their country. These users try to find any tools available to allow
-them to get-around these firewalls. Some anonymity networks, such as
-Six-Four~\cite{six-four}, are designed specifically with this goal in
-mind; others like the Anonymizer~\cite{anonymizer} are paid by sponsors
-such as Voice of America to encourage Internet
-freedom. Even though Tor wasn't
-designed with ubiquitous access to the network in mind, thousands of
-users across the world are now using it for exactly this purpose.
-% Academic and NGO organizations, peacefire, \cite{berkman}, etc
-
-Anti-censorship networks hoping to bridge country-level blocks face
-a variety of challenges. One of these is that they need to find enough
-exit nodes---servers on the `free' side that are willing to relay
-traffic from users to their final destinations. Anonymizing
-networks like Tor are well-suited to this task since we have
-already gathered a set of exit nodes that are willing to tolerate some
-political heat.
-
-The other main challenge is to distribute a list of reachable relays
-to the users inside the country, and give them software to use those relays,
-without letting the censors also enumerate this list and block each
-relay. Anonymizer solves this by buying lots of seemingly-unrelated IP
-addresses (or having them donated), abandoning old addresses as they are
-`used up,' and telling a few users about the new ones. Distributed
-anonymizing networks again have an advantage here, in that we already
-have tens of thousands of separate IP addresses whose users might
-volunteer to provide this service since they've already installed and use
-the software for their own privacy~\cite{koepsell:wpes2004}. Because
-the Tor protocol separates routing from network discovery \cite{tor-design},
-volunteers could configure their Tor clients
-to generate node descriptors and send them to a special directory
-server that gives them out to dissidents who need to get around blocks.
-
-Of course, this still doesn't prevent the adversary
-from enumerating and preemptively blocking the volunteer relays.
-Perhaps a tiered-trust system could be built where a few individuals are
-given relays' locations. They could then recommend other individuals
-by telling them
-those addresses, thus providing a built-in incentive to avoid letting the
-adversary intercept them. Max-flow trust algorithms~\cite{advogato}
-might help to bound the number of IP addresses leaked to the adversary. Groups
-like the W3C are looking into using Tor as a component in an overall system to
-help address censorship; we wish them success.
-
-%\cite{infranet}
-
-
-\section{Scaling}
-\label{sec:scaling}
-
-Tor is running today with hundreds of nodes and hundreds of thousands of
-users, but it will certainly not scale to millions.
-Scaling Tor involves four main challenges. First, to get a
-large set of nodes, we must address incentives for
-users to carry traffic for others. Next is safe node discovery, both
-while bootstrapping (Tor clients must robustly find an initial
-node list) and later (Tor clients must learn about a fair sample
-of honest nodes and not let the adversary control circuits).
-We must also detect and handle node speed and reliability as the network
-becomes increasingly heterogeneous: since the speed and reliability
-of a circuit is limited by its worst link, we must learn to track and
-predict performance. Finally, we must stop assuming that all points on
-the network can connect to all other points.
-
-\subsection{Incentives by Design}
-\label{subsec:incentives-by-design}
-
-There are three behaviors we need to encourage for each Tor node: relaying
-traffic; providing good throughput and reliability while doing it;
-and allowing traffic to exit the network from that node.
-
-We encourage these behaviors through \emph{indirect} incentives: that
-is, by designing the system and educating users in such a way that users
-with certain goals will choose to relay traffic.  One
-main incentive for running a Tor node is social: volunteers
-altruistically donate their bandwidth and time.  We encourage this with
-public rankings of the throughput and reliability of nodes, much like
-seti@home.  We further explain to users that they can get
-deniability for any traffic emerging from the same address as a Tor
-exit node, and they can use their own Tor node
-as an entry or exit point with confidence that it's not run by an adversary.
-Further, users may run a node simply because they need such a network
-to be persistently available and usable, and the value of supporting this
-exceeds any countervening costs.
-Finally, we can encourage operators by improving the usability and feature
-set of the software:
-rate limiting support and easy packaging decrease the hassle of
-maintaining a node, and our configurable exit policies allow each
-operator to advertise a policy describing the hosts and ports to which
-he feels comfortable connecting.
-
-To date these incentives appear to have been adequate. As the system scales
-or as new issues emerge, however, we may also need to provide
- \emph{direct} incentives:
-providing payment or other resources in return for high-quality service.
-Paying actual money is problematic: decentralized e-cash systems are
-not yet practical, and a centralized collection system not only reduces
-robustness, but also has failed in the past (the history of commercial
-anonymizing networks is littered with failed attempts).  A more promising
-option is to use a tit-for-tat incentive scheme, where nodes provide better
-service to nodes that have provided good service for them.
-
-Unfortunately, such an approach introduces new anonymity problems.
-There are many surprising ways for nodes to game the incentive and
-reputation system to undermine anonymity---such systems are typically
-designed to encourage fairness in storage or bandwidth usage, not
-fairness of provided anonymity. An adversary can attract more traffic
-by performing well or can target individual users by selectively
-performing, to undermine their anonymity. Typically a user who
-chooses evenly from all nodes is most resistant to an adversary
-targeting him, but that approach hampers the efficient use
-of heterogeneous nodes.
-
-%When a node (call him Steve) performs well for Alice, does Steve gain
-%reputation with the entire system, or just with Alice? If the entire
-%system, how does Alice tell everybody about her experience in a way that
-%prevents her from lying about it yet still protects her identity? If
-%Steve's behavior only affects Alice's behavior, does this allow Steve to
-%selectively perform only for Alice, and then break her anonymity later
-%when somebody (presumably Alice) routes through his node?
-
-A possible solution is a simplified approach to the tit-for-tat
-incentive scheme based on two rules: (1) each node should measure the
-service it receives from adjacent nodes, and provide service relative
-to the received service, but (2) when a node is making decisions that
-affect its own security (such as building a circuit for its own
-application connections), it should choose evenly from a sufficiently
-large set of nodes that meet some minimum service
-threshold~\cite{casc-rep}.  This approach allows us to discourage
-bad service
-without opening Alice up as much to attacks.  All of this requires
-further study.
-
-
-\subsection{Trust and discovery}
-\label{subsec:trust-and-discovery}
-
-The published Tor design is deliberately simplistic in how
-new nodes are authorized and how clients are informed about Tor
-nodes and their status.
-All nodes periodically upload a signed description
-of their locations, keys, and capabilities to each of several well-known {\it
-  directory servers}.  These directory servers construct a signed summary
-of all known Tor nodes (a ``directory''), and a signed statement of which
-nodes they
-believe to be operational then (a ``network status'').  Clients
-periodically download a directory to learn the latest nodes and
-keys, and more frequently download a network status to learn which nodes are
-likely to be running.  Tor nodes also operate as directory caches, to
-lighten the bandwidth on the directory servers.
-
-To prevent Sybil attacks (wherein an adversary signs up many
-purportedly independent nodes to increase her network view),
-this design
-requires the directory server operators to manually
-approve new nodes.  Unapproved nodes are included in the directory,
-but clients
-do not use them at the start or end of their circuits.  In practice,
-directory administrators perform little actual verification, and tend to
-approve any Tor node whose operator can compose a coherent email.
-This procedure
-may prevent trivial automated Sybil attacks, but will do little
-against a clever and determined attacker.
-
-There are a number of flaws in this system that need to be addressed as we
-move forward. First,
-each directory server represents an independent point of failure: any
-compromised directory server could start recommending only compromised
-nodes.
-Second, as more nodes join the network, %the more unreasonable it
-%becomes to expect clients to know about them all.
-directories
-become infeasibly large, and downloading the list of nodes becomes
-burdensome.
-Third, the validation scheme may do as much harm as it does good.  It 
-does not prevent clever attackers from mounting Sybil attacks,
-and it may deter node operators from joining the network---if
-they expect the validation process to be difficult, or they do not share
-any languages in common with the directory server operators.
-
-We could try to move the system in several directions, depending on our
-choice of threat model and requirements.  If we did not need to increase
-network capacity to support more users, we could simply
- adopt even stricter validation requirements, and reduce the number of
-nodes in the network to a trusted minimum.  
-But, we can only do that if can simultaneously make node capacity
-scale much more than we anticipate to be feasible soon, and if we can find
-entities willing to run such nodes, an equally daunting prospect.
-
-In order to address the first two issues, it seems wise to move to a system
-including a number of semi-trusted directory servers, no one of which can
-compromise a user on its own.  Ultimately, of course, we cannot escape the
-problem of a first introducer: since most users will run Tor in whatever
-configuration the software ships with, the Tor distribution itself will
-remain a single point of failure so long as it includes the seed
-keys for directory servers, a list of directory servers, or any other means
-to learn which nodes are on the network.  But omitting this information
-from the Tor distribution would only delegate the trust problem to each
-individual user. %, most of whom are presumably less informed about how to make
-%trust decisions than the Tor developers.
-A well publicized, widely available, authoritatively and independently
-endorsed and signed list of initial directory servers and their keys
-is a possible solution. But, setting that up properly is itself a large 
-bootstrapping task.
-
-%Network discovery, sybil, node admission, scaling. It seems that the code
-%will ship with something and that's our trust root. We could try to get
-%people to build a web of trust, but no. Where we go from here depends
-%on what threats we have in mind. Really decentralized if your threat is
-%RIAA; less so if threat is to application data or individuals or...
-
-
-\subsection{Measuring performance and capacity}
-\label{subsec:performance}
-
-One of the paradoxes with engineering an anonymity network is that we'd like
-to learn as much as we can about how traffic flows so we can improve the
-network, but we want to prevent others from learning how traffic flows in
-order to trace users' connections through the network.  Furthermore, many
-mechanisms that help Tor run efficiently
-require measurements about the network.
-
-Currently, nodes try to deduce their own available bandwidth (based on how
-much traffic they have been able to transfer recently) and include this
-information in the descriptors they upload to the directory. Clients
-choose servers weighted by their bandwidth, neglecting really slow
-servers and capping the influence of really fast ones.
-%
-This is, of course, eminently cheatable.  A malicious node can get a
-disproportionate amount of traffic simply by claiming to have more bandwidth
-than it does.  But better mechanisms have their problems.  If bandwidth data
-is to be measured rather than self-reported, it is usually possible for
-nodes to selectively provide better service for the measuring party, or
-sabotage the measured value of other nodes.  Complex solutions for
-mix networks have been proposed, but do not address the issues
-completely~\cite{mix-acc,casc-rep}.
-
-Even with no cheating, network measurement is complex.  It is common
-for views of a node's latency and/or bandwidth to vary wildly between
-observers.  Further, it is unclear whether total bandwidth is really
-the right measure; perhaps clients should instead be considering nodes
-based on unused bandwidth or observed throughput.
-%How to measure performance without letting people selectively deny service
-%by distinguishing pings. Heck, just how to measure performance at all. In
-%practice people have funny firewalls that don't match up to their exit
-%policies and Tor doesn't deal.
-%
-%Network investigation: Is all this bandwidth publishing thing a good idea?
-%How can we collect stats better? Note weasel's smokeping, at
-%http://seppia.noreply.org/cgi-bin/smokeping.cgi?target=Tor
-%which probably gives george and steven enough info to break tor?
-%
-And even if we can collect and use this network information effectively,
-we must ensure
-that it is not more useful to attackers than to us.  While it
-seems plausible that bandwidth data alone is not enough to reveal
-sender-recipient connections under most circumstances, it could certainly
-reveal the path taken by large traffic flows under low-usage circumstances.
-
-\subsection{Non-clique topologies}
-
-Tor's comparatively weak threat model may allow easier scaling than
-other
-designs.  High-latency mix networks need to avoid partitioning attacks, where
-network splits let an attacker distinguish users in different partitions.
-Since Tor assumes the adversary cannot cheaply observe nodes at will,
-a network split may not decrease protection much.
-Thus, one option when the scale of a Tor network
-exceeds some size is simply to split it. Nodes could be allocated into
-partitions while hampering collaborating hostile nodes from taking over
-a single partition~\cite{casc-rep}.
-Clients could switch between
-networks, even on a per-circuit basis.
-%Future analysis may uncover
-%other dangers beyond those affecting mix-nets.
-
-More conservatively, we can try to scale a single Tor network. Likely
-problems with adding more servers to a single Tor network include an
-explosion in the number of sockets needed on each server as more servers
-join, and increased coordination overhead to keep each users' view of
-the network consistent. As we grow, we will also have more instances of
-servers that can't reach each other simply due to Internet topology or
-routing problems.
-
-%include restricting the number of sockets and the amount of bandwidth
-%used by each node.  The number of sockets is determined by the network's
-%connectivity and the number of users, while bandwidth capacity is determined
-%by the total bandwidth of nodes on the network.  The simplest solution to
-%bandwidth capacity is to add more nodes, since adding a Tor node of any
-%feasible bandwidth will increase the traffic capacity of the network.  So as
-%a first step to scaling, we should focus on making the network tolerate more
-%nodes, by reducing the interconnectivity of the nodes; later we can reduce
-%overhead associated with directories, discovery, and so on.
-
-We can address these points by reducing the network's connectivity.
-Danezis~\cite{danezis:pet2003} considers
-the anonymity implications of restricting routes on mix networks and
-recommends an approach based on expander graphs (where any subgraph is likely
-to have many neighbors).  It is not immediately clear that this approach will
-extend to Tor, which has a weaker threat model but higher performance
-requirements: instead of analyzing the
-probability of an attacker's viewing whole paths, we will need to examine the
-attacker's likelihood of compromising the endpoints.
-%
-Tor may not need an expander graph per se: it
-may be enough to have a single central subnet that is highly connected, like
-an Internet backbone. %  As an
-%example, assume fifty nodes of relatively high traffic capacity.  This
-%\emph{center} forms a clique.  Assume each center node can
-%handle 200 connections to other nodes (including the other ones in the
-%center). Assume every noncenter node connects to three nodes in the
-%center and anyone out of the center that they want to.  Then the
-%network easily scales to c. 2500 nodes with commensurate increase in
-%bandwidth.
-There are many open questions: how to distribute connectivity information
-(presumably nodes will learn about the central nodes
-when they download Tor), whether central nodes
-will need to function as a `backbone', and so on. As above,
-this could reduce the amount of anonymity available from a mix-net,
-but for a low-latency network where anonymity derives largely from
-the edges, it may be feasible.
-
-%In a sense, Tor already has a non-clique topology.
-%Individuals can set up and run Tor nodes without informing the
-%directory servers. This allows groups to run a
-%local Tor network of private nodes that connects to the public Tor
-%network. This network is hidden behind the Tor network, and its
-%only visible connection to Tor is at those points where it connects.
-%As far as the public network, or anyone observing it, is concerned,
-%they are running clients.
-}
-
-\section{The Future}
-\label{sec:conclusion}
-
-Tor is the largest and most diverse low-latency anonymity network
-available, but we are still in the beginning stages of deployment. Several
-major questions remain.
-
-First, will our volunteer-based approach to sustainability work in the
-long term? As we add more features and destabilize the network, the
-developers spend a lot of time keeping the server operators happy. Even
-though Tor is free software, the network would likely stagnate and die at
-this stage if the developers stopped actively working on it. We may get
-an unexpected boon from the fact that we're a general-purpose overlay
-network: as Tor grows more popular, other groups who need an overlay
-network on the Internet are starting to adapt Tor to their needs.
-%
-Second, Tor is only one of many components that preserve privacy online.
-For applications where it is desirable to
-keep identifying information out of application traffic, someone must build
-more and better protocol-aware proxies that are usable by ordinary people.
-%
-Third, we need to gain a reputation for social good, and learn how to
-coexist with the variety of Internet services and their established
-authentication mechanisms. We can't just keep escalating the blacklist
-standoff forever.
-%
-Fourth, the current Tor
-architecture does not scale even to handle current user demand. We must
-find designs and incentives to let some clients relay traffic too, without
-sacrificing too much anonymity.
-
-These are difficult and open questions. Yet choosing not to solve them
-means leaving most users to a less secure network or no anonymizing
-network at all.
-
-\bibliographystyle{plain} \bibliography{tor-design}
-
-\end{document}
-
-\clearpage
-\appendix
-
-\begin{figure}[t]
-%\unitlength=1in
-\centering
-%\begin{picture}(6.0,2.0)
-%\put(3,1){\makebox(0,0)[c]{\epsfig{figure=graphnodes,width=6in}}}
-%\end{picture}
-\mbox{\epsfig{figure=graphnodes,width=5in}}
-\caption{Number of Tor nodes over time, through January 2005. Lowest
-line is number of exit
-nodes that allow connections to port 80. Middle line is total number of
-verified (registered) Tor nodes. The line above that represents nodes
-that are running but not yet registered.}
-\label{fig:graphnodes}
-\end{figure}
-
-\begin{figure}[t]
-\centering
-\mbox{\epsfig{figure=graphtraffic,width=5in}}
-\caption{The sum of traffic reported by each node over time, through
-January 2005. The bottom
-pair show average throughput, and the top pair represent the largest 15
-minute burst in each 4 hour period.}
-\label{fig:graphtraffic}
-\end{figure}
-
-
-
-%Making use of nodes with little bandwidth, or high latency/packet loss.
-
-%Running Tor nodes behind NATs, behind great-firewalls-of-China, etc.
-%Restricted routes. How to propagate to everybody the topology? BGP
-%style doesn't work because we don't want just *one* path. Point to
-%Geoff's stuff.
-

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-% arrowhead
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-% arrowhead
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-% Polyline
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-6075 3075 m
-gs 1 -1 sc ("HTTP GET...") col0 sh gr
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-gs 1 -1 sc (. . .) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm  col0 sh gr
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-gs 1 -1 sc (\(TCP handshake\)) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm  col0 sh gr
-/Times-Bold-iso ff 180.00 scf sf
-7875 225 m
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-gs 1 -1 sc (Relay c1{{Data, "HTTP GET..."}}) col0 sh gr
-/Times-Roman-iso ff 150.00 scf sf
-3675 3000 m
-gs 1 -1 sc (Relay c2{Data, "HTTP GET..."}) col0 sh gr
-/Times-Roman-iso ff 150.00 scf sf
-4800 225 m
-gs 1 -1 sc (\(link is TLS-encryped\)) dup sw pop 2 div neg 0 rm  col0 sh gr
-/Times-Roman-iso ff 150.00 scf sf
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-gs 1 -1 sc (Relay c1{{Data, \(response\)}}) dup sw pop neg 0 rm  col0 sh gr
-/Times-Roman-iso ff 150.00 scf sf
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-gs 1 -1 sc (\(response\)) dup sw pop neg 0 rm  col0 sh gr
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-/Times-Roman-iso ff 150.00 scf sf
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-gs 1 -1 sc (Created c1, g^y1, H\(K1\)) dup sw pop neg 0 rm  col0 sh gr
-$F2psEnd
-rs

doc/design-paper/interaction.fig

@@ -1,122 +0,0 @@
-#FIG 3.2
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-Center
-Inches
-Letter  
-100.00
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--2
-1200 2
-2 1 0 2 0 7 50 0 -1 0.000 0 0 -1 0 0 2
-	 6000 300 6000 3975
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doc/design-paper/latex8.bst

@@ -1,1122 +0,0 @@
-
-% ---------------------------------------------------------------
-%
-% by Paolo.Ienne@di.epfl.ch
-%
-
-% ---------------------------------------------------------------
-%
-% no guarantee is given that the format corresponds perfectly to 
-% IEEE 8.5" x 11" Proceedings, but most features should be ok.
-%
-% ---------------------------------------------------------------
-%
-% `latex8' from BibTeX standard bibliography style `abbrv'
-% version 0.99a for BibTeX versions 0.99a or later, LaTeX version 2.09.
-% Copyright (C) 1985, all rights reserved.
-% Copying of this file is authorized only if either
-% (1) you make absolutely no changes to your copy, including name, or
-% (2) if you do make changes, you name it something other than
-% btxbst.doc, plain.bst, unsrt.bst, alpha.bst, and abbrv.bst.
-% This restriction helps ensure that all standard styles are identical.
-% The file btxbst.doc has the documentation for this style.
-
-ENTRY
-  { address
-    author
-    booktitle
-    chapter
-    edition
-    editor
-    howpublished
-    institution
-    journal
-    key
-    month
-    note
-    number
-    organization
-    pages
-    publisher
-    school
-    series
-    title
-    type
-    volume
-    year
-  }
-  {}
-  { label }
-
-INTEGERS { output.state before.all mid.sentence after.sentence after.block }
-
-FUNCTION {init.state.consts}
-{ #0 'before.all :=
-  #1 'mid.sentence :=
-  #2 'after.sentence :=
-  #3 'after.block :=
-}
-
-STRINGS { s t }
-
-FUNCTION {output.nonnull}
-{ 's :=
-  output.state mid.sentence =
-    { ", " * write$ }
-    { output.state after.block =
- { add.period$ write$
-   newline$
-   "\newblock " write$
- }
- { output.state before.all =
-     'write$
-     { add.period$ " " * write$ }
-   if$
- }
-      if$
-      mid.sentence 'output.state :=
-    }
-  if$
-  s
-}
-
-FUNCTION {output}
-{ duplicate$ empty$
-    'pop$
-    'output.nonnull
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {output.check}
-{ 't :=
-  duplicate$ empty$
-    { pop$ "empty " t * " in " * cite$ * warning$ }
-    'output.nonnull
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {output.bibitem}
-{ newline$
-  "\bibitem{" write$
-  cite$ write$
-  "}" write$
-  newline$
-  ""
-  before.all 'output.state :=
-}
-
-FUNCTION {fin.entry}
-{ add.period$
-  write$
-  newline$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {new.block}
-{ output.state before.all =
-    'skip$
-    { after.block 'output.state := }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {new.sentence}
-{ output.state after.block =
-    'skip$
-    { output.state before.all =
- 'skip$
- { after.sentence 'output.state := }
-      if$
-    }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {not}
-{   { #0 }
-    { #1 }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {and}
-{   'skip$
-    { pop$ #0 }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {or}
-{   { pop$ #1 }
-    'skip$
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {new.block.checka}
-{ empty$
-    'skip$
-    'new.block
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {new.block.checkb}
-{ empty$
-  swap$ empty$
-  and
-    'skip$
-    'new.block
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {new.sentence.checka}
-{ empty$
-    'skip$
-    'new.sentence
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {new.sentence.checkb}
-{ empty$
-  swap$ empty$
-  and
-    'skip$
-    'new.sentence
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {field.or.null}
-{ duplicate$ empty$
-    { pop$ "" }
-    'skip$
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {emphasize}
-{ duplicate$ empty$
-    { pop$ "" }
-    { "{\em " swap$ * "}" * }
-  if$
-}
-
-INTEGERS { nameptr namesleft numnames }
-
-FUNCTION {format.names}
-{ 's :=
-  #1 'nameptr :=
-  s num.names$ 'numnames :=
-  numnames 'namesleft :=
-    { namesleft #0 > }
-    { s nameptr "{f.~}{vv~}{ll}{, jj}" format.name$ 't :=
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- { namesleft #1 >
-     { ", " * t * }
-     { numnames #2 >
-  { "," * }
-  'skip$
-       if$
-       t "others" =
-  { " et~al." * }
-  { " and " * t * }
-       if$
-     }
-   if$
- }
- 't
-      if$
-      nameptr #1 + 'nameptr :=
-
-      namesleft #1 - 'namesleft :=
-    }
-  while$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.authors}
-{ author empty$
-    { "" }
-    { author format.names }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.editors}
-{ editor empty$
-    { "" }
-    { editor format.names
-      editor num.names$ #1 >
- { ", editors" * }
- { ", editor" * }
-      if$
-    }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.title}
-{ title empty$
-    { "" }
-    { title "t" change.case$ }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {n.dashify}
-{ 't :=
-  ""
-    { t empty$ not }
-    { t #1 #1 substring$ "-" =
- { t #1 #2 substring$ "--" = not
-     { "--" *
-       t #2 global.max$ substring$ 't :=
-     }
-     {   { t #1 #1 substring$ "-" = }
-  { "-" *
-    t #2 global.max$ substring$ 't :=
-  }
-       while$
-     }
-   if$
- }
- { t #1 #1 substring$ *
-   t #2 global.max$ substring$ 't :=
- }
-      if$
-    }
-  while$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.date}
-{ year empty$
-    { month empty$
- { "" }
- { "there's a month but no year in " cite$ * warning$
-   month
- }
-      if$
-    }
-    { month empty$
- 'year
- { month " " * year * }
-      if$
-    }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.btitle}
-{ title emphasize
-}
-
-FUNCTION {tie.or.space.connect}
-{ duplicate$ text.length$ #3 <
-    { "~" }
-    { " " }
-  if$
-  swap$ * *
-}
-
-FUNCTION {either.or.check}
-{ empty$
-    'pop$
-    { "can't use both " swap$ * " fields in " * cite$ * warning$ }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.bvolume}
-{ volume empty$
-    { "" }
-    { "volume" volume tie.or.space.connect
-      series empty$
- 'skip$
- { " of " * series emphasize * }
-      if$
-      "volume and number" number either.or.check
-    }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.number.series}
-{ volume empty$
-    { number empty$
- { series field.or.null }
- { output.state mid.sentence =
-     { "number" }
-     { "Number" }
-   if$
-   number tie.or.space.connect
-   series empty$
-     { "there's a number but no series in " cite$ * warning$ }
-     { " in " * series * }
-   if$
- }
-      if$
-    }
-    { "" }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.edition}
-{ edition empty$
-    { "" }
-    { output.state mid.sentence =
- { edition "l" change.case$ " edition" * }
- { edition "t" change.case$ " edition" * }
-      if$
-    }
-  if$
-}
-
-INTEGERS { multiresult }
-
-FUNCTION {multi.page.check}
-{ 't :=
-  #0 'multiresult :=
-    { multiresult not
-      t empty$ not
-      and
-    }
-    { t #1 #1 substring$
-      duplicate$ "-" =
-      swap$ duplicate$ "," =
-      swap$ "+" =
-      or or
- { #1 'multiresult := }
- { t #2 global.max$ substring$ 't := }
-      if$
-    }
-  while$
-  multiresult
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.pages}
-{ pages empty$
-    { "" }
-    { pages multi.page.check
- { "pages" pages n.dashify tie.or.space.connect }
- { "page" pages tie.or.space.connect }
-      if$
-    }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.vol.num.pages}
-{ volume field.or.null
-  number empty$
-    'skip$
-    { "(" number * ")" * *
-      volume empty$
- { "there's a number but no volume in " cite$ * warning$ }
- 'skip$
-      if$
-    }
-  if$
-  pages empty$
-    'skip$
-    { duplicate$ empty$
- { pop$ format.pages }
- { ":" * pages n.dashify * }
-      if$
-    }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.chapter.pages}
-{ chapter empty$
-    'format.pages
-    { type empty$
- { "chapter" }
- { type "l" change.case$ }
-      if$
-      chapter tie.or.space.connect
-      pages empty$
- 'skip$
- { ", " * format.pages * }
-      if$
-    }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.in.ed.booktitle}
-{ booktitle empty$
-    { "" }
-    { editor empty$
- { "In " booktitle emphasize * }
- { "In " format.editors * ", " * booktitle emphasize * }
-      if$
-    }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {empty.misc.check}
-
-{ author empty$ title empty$ howpublished empty$
-  month empty$ year empty$ note empty$
-  and and and and and
-  key empty$ not and
-    { "all relevant fields are empty in " cite$ * warning$ }
-    'skip$
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.thesis.type}
-{ type empty$
-    'skip$
-    { pop$
-      type "t" change.case$
-    }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.tr.number}
-{ type empty$
-    { "Technical Report" }
-    'type
-  if$
-  number empty$
-    { "t" change.case$ }
-    { number tie.or.space.connect }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.article.crossref}
-{ key empty$
-    { journal empty$
- { "need key or journal for " cite$ * " to crossref " * crossref *
-   warning$
-   ""
- }
- { "In {\em " journal * "\/}" * }
-      if$
-    }
-    { "In " key * }
-  if$
-  " \cite{" * crossref * "}" *
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.crossref.editor}
-{ editor #1 "{vv~}{ll}" format.name$
-  editor num.names$ duplicate$
-  #2 >
-    { pop$ " et~al." * }
-    { #2 <
- 'skip$
- { editor #2 "{ff }{vv }{ll}{ jj}" format.name$ "others" =
-     { " et~al." * }
-     { " and " * editor #2 "{vv~}{ll}" format.name$ * }
-   if$
- }
-      if$
-    }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.book.crossref}
-{ volume empty$
-    { "empty volume in " cite$ * "'s crossref of " * crossref * warning$
-      "In "
-    }
-    { "Volume" volume tie.or.space.connect
-      " of " *
-    }
-  if$
-  editor empty$
-  editor field.or.null author field.or.null =
-  or
-    { key empty$
- { series empty$
-     { "need editor, key, or series for " cite$ * " to crossref " *
-       crossref * warning$
-       "" *
-     }
-     { "{\em " * series * "\/}" * }
-   if$
- }
- { key * }
-      if$
-    }
-    { format.crossref.editor * }
-  if$
-  " \cite{" * crossref * "}" *
-}
-
-FUNCTION {format.incoll.inproc.crossref}
-{ editor empty$
-  editor field.or.null author field.or.null =
-  or
-    { key empty$
- { booktitle empty$
-     { "need editor, key, or booktitle for " cite$ * " to crossref " *
-       crossref * warning$
-       ""
-     }
-     { "In {\em " booktitle * "\/}" * }
-   if$
- }
- { "In " key * }
-      if$
-    }
-    { "In " format.crossref.editor * }
-  if$
-  " \cite{" * crossref * "}" *
-}
-
-FUNCTION {article}
-{ output.bibitem
-  format.authors "author" output.check
-  new.block
-  format.title "title" output.check
-  new.block
-  crossref missing$
-    { journal emphasize "journal" output.check
-      format.vol.num.pages output
-      format.date "year" output.check
-    }
-    { format.article.crossref output.nonnull
-      format.pages output
-    }
-  if$
-  new.block
-  note output
-  fin.entry
-}
-
-FUNCTION {book}
-{ output.bibitem
-  author empty$
-    { format.editors "author and editor" output.check }
-    { format.authors output.nonnull
-      crossref missing$
- { "author and editor" editor either.or.check }
- 'skip$
-      if$
-    }
-  if$
-  new.block
-  format.btitle "title" output.check
-  crossref missing$
-    { format.bvolume output
-      new.block
-      format.number.series output
-      new.sentence
-      publisher "publisher" output.check
-      address output
-    }
-    { new.block
-      format.book.crossref output.nonnull
-    }
-  if$
-  format.edition output
-  format.date "year" output.check
-  new.block
-  note output
-  fin.entry
-}
-
-FUNCTION {booklet}
-{ output.bibitem
-  format.authors output
-  new.block
-  format.title "title" output.check
-  howpublished address new.block.checkb
-  howpublished output
-  address output
-  format.date output
-  new.block
-  note output
-  fin.entry
-}
-
-FUNCTION {inbook}
-{ output.bibitem
-  author empty$
-    { format.editors "author and editor" output.check }
-    { format.authors output.nonnull
-
-      crossref missing$
- { "author and editor" editor either.or.check }
- 'skip$
-      if$
-    }
-  if$
-  new.block
-  format.btitle "title" output.check
-  crossref missing$
-    { format.bvolume output
-      format.chapter.pages "chapter and pages" output.check
-      new.block
-      format.number.series output
-      new.sentence
-      publisher "publisher" output.check
-      address output
-    }
-    { format.chapter.pages "chapter and pages" output.check
-      new.block
-      format.book.crossref output.nonnull
-    }
-  if$
-  format.edition output
-  format.date "year" output.check
-  new.block
-  note output
-  fin.entry
-}
-
-FUNCTION {incollection}
-{ output.bibitem
-  format.authors "author" output.check
-  new.block
-  format.title "title" output.check
-  new.block
-  crossref missing$
-    { format.in.ed.booktitle "booktitle" output.check
-      format.bvolume output
-      format.number.series output
-      format.chapter.pages output
-      new.sentence
-      publisher "publisher" output.check
-      address output
-      format.edition output
-      format.date "year" output.check
-    }
-    { format.incoll.inproc.crossref output.nonnull
-      format.chapter.pages output
-    }
-  if$
-  new.block
-  note output
-  fin.entry
-}
-
-FUNCTION {inproceedings}
-{ output.bibitem
-  format.authors "author" output.check
-  new.block
-  format.title "title" output.check
-  new.block
-  crossref missing$
-    { format.in.ed.booktitle "booktitle" output.check
-      format.bvolume output
-      format.number.series output
-      format.pages output
-      address empty$
- { organization publisher new.sentence.checkb
-   organization output
-   publisher output
-   format.date "year" output.check
- }
- { address output.nonnull
-   format.date "year" output.check
-   new.sentence
-   organization output
-   publisher output
- }
-      if$
-    }
-    { format.incoll.inproc.crossref output.nonnull
-      format.pages output
-    }
-  if$
-  new.block
-  note output
-  fin.entry
-}
-
-FUNCTION {conference} { inproceedings }
-
-FUNCTION {manual}
-{ output.bibitem
-  author empty$
-    { organization empty$
- 'skip$
- { organization output.nonnull
-   address output
- }
-      if$
-    }
-    { format.authors output.nonnull }
-  if$
-  new.block
-  format.btitle "title" output.check
-  author empty$
-    { organization empty$
- { address new.block.checka
-   address output
- }
- 'skip$
-      if$
-    }
-    { organization address new.block.checkb
-      organization output
-      address output
-    }
-  if$
-  format.edition output
-  format.date output
-  new.block
-  note output
-  fin.entry
-}
-
-FUNCTION {mastersthesis}
-{ output.bibitem
-  format.authors "author" output.check
-  new.block
-  format.title "title" output.check
-  new.block
-  "Master's thesis" format.thesis.type output.nonnull
-  school "school" output.check
-  address output
-  format.date "year" output.check
-  new.block
-  note output
-  fin.entry
-}
-
-FUNCTION {misc}
-{ output.bibitem
-  format.authors output
-  title howpublished new.block.checkb
-  format.title output
-  howpublished new.block.checka
-  howpublished output
-  format.date output
-  new.block
-  note output
-  fin.entry
-  empty.misc.check
-}
-
-FUNCTION {phdthesis}
-{ output.bibitem
-  format.authors "author" output.check
-  new.block
-  format.btitle "title" output.check
-  new.block
-  "PhD thesis" format.thesis.type output.nonnull
-  school "school" output.check
-  address output
-  format.date "year" output.check
-  new.block
-  note output
-  fin.entry
-}
-
-FUNCTION {proceedings}
-{ output.bibitem
-  editor empty$
-    { organization output }
-    { format.editors output.nonnull }
-
-  if$
-  new.block
-  format.btitle "title" output.check
-  format.bvolume output
-  format.number.series output
-  address empty$
-    { editor empty$
- { publisher new.sentence.checka }
- { organization publisher new.sentence.checkb
-   organization output
- }
-      if$
-      publisher output
-      format.date "year" output.check
-    }
-    { address output.nonnull
-      format.date "year" output.check
-      new.sentence
-      editor empty$
- 'skip$
- { organization output }
-      if$
-      publisher output
-    }
-  if$
-  new.block
-  note output
-  fin.entry
-}
-
-FUNCTION {techreport}
-{ output.bibitem
-  format.authors "author" output.check
-  new.block
-  format.title "title" output.check
-  new.block
-  format.tr.number output.nonnull
-  institution "institution" output.check
-  address output
-  format.date "year" output.check
-  new.block
-  note output
-  fin.entry
-}
-
-FUNCTION {unpublished}
-{ output.bibitem
-  format.authors "author" output.check
-  new.block
-  format.title "title" output.check
-  new.block
-  note "note" output.check
-  format.date output
-  fin.entry
-}
-
-FUNCTION {default.type} { misc }
-
-MACRO {jan} {"Jan."}
-
-MACRO {feb} {"Feb."}
-
-MACRO {mar} {"Mar."}
-
-MACRO {apr} {"Apr."}
-
-MACRO {may} {"May"}
-
-MACRO {jun} {"June"}
-
-MACRO {jul} {"July"}
-
-MACRO {aug} {"Aug."}
-
-MACRO {sep} {"Sept."}
-
-MACRO {oct} {"Oct."}
-
-MACRO {nov} {"Nov."}
-
-MACRO {dec} {"Dec."}
-
-MACRO {acmcs} {"ACM Comput. Surv."}
-
-MACRO {acta} {"Acta Inf."}
-
-MACRO {cacm} {"Commun. ACM"}
-
-MACRO {ibmjrd} {"IBM J. Res. Dev."}
-
-MACRO {ibmsj} {"IBM Syst.~J."}
-
-MACRO {ieeese} {"IEEE Trans. Softw. Eng."}
-
-MACRO {ieeetc} {"IEEE Trans. Comput."}
-
-MACRO {ieeetcad}
- {"IEEE Trans. Comput.-Aided Design Integrated Circuits"}
-
-MACRO {ipl} {"Inf. Process. Lett."}
-
-MACRO {jacm} {"J.~ACM"}
-
-MACRO {jcss} {"J.~Comput. Syst. Sci."}
-
-MACRO {scp} {"Sci. Comput. Programming"}
-
-MACRO {sicomp} {"SIAM J. Comput."}
-
-MACRO {tocs} {"ACM Trans. Comput. Syst."}
-
-MACRO {tods} {"ACM Trans. Database Syst."}
-
-MACRO {tog} {"ACM Trans. Gr."}
-
-MACRO {toms} {"ACM Trans. Math. Softw."}
-
-MACRO {toois} {"ACM Trans. Office Inf. Syst."}
-
-MACRO {toplas} {"ACM Trans. Prog. Lang. Syst."}
-
-MACRO {tcs} {"Theoretical Comput. Sci."}
-
-READ
-
-FUNCTION {sortify}
-{ purify$
-  "l" change.case$
-}
-
-INTEGERS { len }
-
-FUNCTION {chop.word}
-{ 's :=
-  'len :=
-  s #1 len substring$ =
-    { s len #1 + global.max$ substring$ }
-    's
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {sort.format.names}
-{ 's :=
-  #1 'nameptr :=
-  ""
-  s num.names$ 'numnames :=
-  numnames 'namesleft :=
-    { namesleft #0 > }
-    { nameptr #1 >
- { "   " * }
- 'skip$
-      if$
-      s nameptr "{vv{ } }{ll{ }}{  f{ }}{  jj{ }}" format.name$ 't :=
-      nameptr numnames = t "others" = and
- { "et al" * }
- { t sortify * }
-      if$
-      nameptr #1 + 'nameptr :=
-      namesleft #1 - 'namesleft :=
-    }
-  while$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {sort.format.title}
-{ 't :=
-  "A " #2
-    "An " #3
-      "The " #4 t chop.word
-    chop.word
-  chop.word
-  sortify
-  #1 global.max$ substring$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {author.sort}
-{ author empty$
-    { key empty$
- { "to sort, need author or key in " cite$ * warning$
-   ""
- }
- { key sortify }
-      if$
-    }
-    { author sort.format.names }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {author.editor.sort}
-{ author empty$
-    { editor empty$
- { key empty$
-     { "to sort, need author, editor, or key in " cite$ * warning$
-       ""
-     }
-     { key sortify }
-   if$
- }
- { editor sort.format.names }
-      if$
-    }
-    { author sort.format.names }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {author.organization.sort}
-{ author empty$
-
-    { organization empty$
- { key empty$
-     { "to sort, need author, organization, or key in " cite$ * warning$
-       ""
-     }
-     { key sortify }
-   if$
- }
- { "The " #4 organization chop.word sortify }
-      if$
-    }
-    { author sort.format.names }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {editor.organization.sort}
-{ editor empty$
-    { organization empty$
- { key empty$
-     { "to sort, need editor, organization, or key in " cite$ * warning$
-       ""
-     }
-     { key sortify }
-   if$
- }
- { "The " #4 organization chop.word sortify }
-      if$
-    }
-    { editor sort.format.names }
-  if$
-}
-
-FUNCTION {presort}
-{ type$ "book" =
-  type$ "inbook" =
-  or
-    'author.editor.sort
-    { type$ "proceedings" =
- 'editor.organization.sort
- { type$ "manual" =
-     'author.organization.sort
-     'author.sort
-   if$
- }
-      if$
-    }
-  if$
-  "    "
-  *
-  year field.or.null sortify
-  *
-  "    "
-  *
-  title field.or.null
-  sort.format.title
-  *
-  #1 entry.max$ substring$
-  'sort.key$ :=
-}
-
-ITERATE {presort}
-
-SORT
-
-STRINGS { longest.label }
-
-INTEGERS { number.label longest.label.width }
-
-FUNCTION {initialize.longest.label}
-{ "" 'longest.label :=
-  #1 'number.label :=
-  #0 'longest.label.width :=
-}
-
-FUNCTION {longest.label.pass}
-{ number.label int.to.str$ 'label :=
-  number.label #1 + 'number.label :=
-  label width$ longest.label.width >
-    { label 'longest.label :=
-      label width$ 'longest.label.width :=
-    }
-    'skip$
-  if$
-}
-
-EXECUTE {initialize.longest.label}
-
-ITERATE {longest.label.pass}
-
-FUNCTION {begin.bib}
-{ preamble$ empty$
-    'skip$
-    { preamble$ write$ newline$ }
-  if$
-  "\begin{thebibliography}{"  longest.label  * 
-  "}\setlength{\itemsep}{-1ex}\small" * write$ newline$
-}
-
-EXECUTE {begin.bib}
-
-EXECUTE {init.state.consts}
-
-ITERATE {call.type$}
-
-FUNCTION {end.bib}
-{ newline$
-  "\end{thebibliography}" write$ newline$
-}
-
-EXECUTE {end.bib}
-
-% end of file latex8.bst
-% ---------------------------------------------------------------
-
-
-

doc/design-paper/llncs.cls

@@ -1,1016 +0,0 @@
-% LLNCS DOCUMENT CLASS -- version 2.8
-% for LaTeX2e
-%
-\NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}[1995/12/01]
-\ProvidesClass{llncs}[2000/05/16 v2.8
-^^JLaTeX document class for Lecture Notes in Computer Science]
-% Options
-\let\if@envcntreset\iffalse
-\DeclareOption{envcountreset}{\let\if@envcntreset\iftrue}
-\DeclareOption{citeauthoryear}{\let\citeauthoryear=Y}
-\DeclareOption{oribibl}{\let\oribibl=Y}
-\let\if@custvec\iftrue
-\DeclareOption{orivec}{\let\if@custvec\iffalse}
-\let\if@envcntsame\iffalse
-\DeclareOption{envcountsame}{\let\if@envcntsame\iftrue}
-\let\if@envcntsect\iffalse
-\DeclareOption{envcountsect}{\let\if@envcntsect\iftrue}
-\let\if@runhead\iffalse
-\DeclareOption{runningheads}{\let\if@runhead\iftrue}
-
-\let\if@openbib\iffalse
-\DeclareOption{openbib}{\let\if@openbib\iftrue}
-
-\DeclareOption*{\PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}}
-
-\ProcessOptions
-
-\LoadClass[twoside]{article}
-\RequirePackage{multicol} % needed for the list of participants, index
-
-\setlength{\textwidth}{12.2cm}
-\setlength{\textheight}{19.3cm}
-
-% Ragged bottom for the actual page
-\def\thisbottomragged{\def\@textbottom{\vskip\z@ plus.0001fil
-\global\let\@textbottom\relax}}
-
-\renewcommand\small{%
-   \@setfontsize\small\@ixpt{11}%
-   \abovedisplayskip 8.5\p@ \@plus3\p@ \@minus4\p@
-   \abovedisplayshortskip \z@ \@plus2\p@
-   \belowdisplayshortskip 4\p@ \@plus2\p@ \@minus2\p@
-   \def\@listi{\leftmargin\leftmargini
-               \parsep 0\p@ \@plus1\p@ \@minus\p@
-               \topsep 8\p@ \@plus2\p@ \@minus4\p@
-               \itemsep0\p@}%
-   \belowdisplayskip \abovedisplayskip
-}
-
-\frenchspacing
-\widowpenalty=10000
-\clubpenalty=10000
-
-\setlength\oddsidemargin   {63\p@}
-\setlength\evensidemargin  {63\p@}
-\setlength\marginparwidth  {90\p@}
-
-\setlength\headsep   {16\p@}
-
-\setlength\footnotesep{7.7\p@}
-\setlength\textfloatsep{8mm\@plus 2\p@ \@minus 4\p@}
-\setlength\intextsep   {8mm\@plus 2\p@ \@minus 2\p@}
-
-\setcounter{secnumdepth}{2}
-
-\newcounter {chapter}
-\renewcommand\thechapter      {\@arabic\c@chapter}
-
-\newif\if@mainmatter \@mainmattertrue
-\newcommand\frontmatter{\cleardoublepage
-            \@mainmatterfalse\pagenumbering{Roman}}
-\newcommand\mainmatter{\cleardoublepage
-       \@mainmattertrue\pagenumbering{arabic}}
-\newcommand\backmatter{\if@openright\cleardoublepage\else\clearpage\fi
-      \@mainmatterfalse}
-
-\renewcommand\part{\cleardoublepage
-                 \thispagestyle{empty}%
-                 \if@twocolumn
-                     \onecolumn
-                     \@tempswatrue
-                   \else
-                     \@tempswafalse
-                 \fi
-                 \null\vfil
-                 \secdef\@part\@spart}
-
-\def\@part[#1]#2{%
-    \ifnum \c@secnumdepth >-2\relax
-      \refstepcounter{part}%
-      \addcontentsline{toc}{part}{\thepart\hspace{1em}#1}%
-    \else
-      \addcontentsline{toc}{part}{#1}%
-    \fi
-    \markboth{}{}%
-    {\centering
-     \interlinepenalty \@M
-     \normalfont
-     \ifnum \c@secnumdepth >-2\relax
-       \huge\bfseries \partname~\thepart
-       \par
-       \vskip 20\p@
-     \fi
-     \Huge \bfseries #2\par}%
-    \@endpart}
-\def\@spart#1{%
-    {\centering
-     \interlinepenalty \@M
-     \normalfont
-     \Huge \bfseries #1\par}%
-    \@endpart}
-\def\@endpart{\vfil\newpage
-              \if@twoside
-                \null
-                \thispagestyle{empty}%
-                \newpage
-              \fi
-              \if@tempswa
-                \twocolumn
-              \fi}
-
-\newcommand\chapter{\clearpage
-                    \thispagestyle{empty}%
-                    \global\@topnum\z@
-                    \@afterindentfalse
-                    \secdef\@chapter\@schapter}
-\def\@chapter[#1]#2{\ifnum \c@secnumdepth >\m@ne
-                       \if@mainmatter
-                         \refstepcounter{chapter}%
-                         \typeout{\@chapapp\space\thechapter.}%
-                         \addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}%
-                                  {\protect\numberline{\thechapter}#1}%
-                       \else
-                         \addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{#1}%
-                       \fi
-                    \else
-                      \addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{#1}%
-                    \fi
-                    \chaptermark{#1}%
-                    \addtocontents{lof}{\protect\addvspace{10\p@}}%
-                    \addtocontents{lot}{\protect\addvspace{10\p@}}%
-                    \if@twocolumn
-                      \@topnewpage[\@makechapterhead{#2}]%
-                    \else
-                      \@makechapterhead{#2}%
-                      \@afterheading
-                    \fi}
-\def\@makechapterhead#1{%
-% \vspace*{50\p@}%
-  {\centering
-    \ifnum \c@secnumdepth >\m@ne
-      \if@mainmatter
-        \large\bfseries \@chapapp{} \thechapter
-        \par\nobreak
-        \vskip 20\p@
-      \fi
-    \fi
-    \interlinepenalty\@M
-    \Large \bfseries #1\par\nobreak
-    \vskip 40\p@
-  }}
-\def\@schapter#1{\if@twocolumn
-                   \@topnewpage[\@makeschapterhead{#1}]%
-                 \else
-                   \@makeschapterhead{#1}%
-                   \@afterheading
-                 \fi}
-\def\@makeschapterhead#1{%
-% \vspace*{50\p@}%
-  {\centering
-    \normalfont
-    \interlinepenalty\@M
-    \Large \bfseries  #1\par\nobreak
-    \vskip 40\p@
-  }}
-
-\renewcommand\section{\@startsection{section}{1}{\z@}%
-                       {-18\p@ \@plus -4\p@ \@minus -4\p@}%
-                       {12\p@ \@plus 4\p@ \@minus 4\p@}%
-                       {\normalfont\large\bfseries\boldmath
-                        \rightskip=\z@ \@plus 8em\pretolerance=10000 }}
-\renewcommand\subsection{\@startsection{subsection}{2}{\z@}%
-                       {-18\p@ \@plus -4\p@ \@minus -4\p@}%
-                       {8\p@ \@plus 4\p@ \@minus 4\p@}%
-                       {\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries\boldmath
-                        \rightskip=\z@ \@plus 8em\pretolerance=10000 }}
-\renewcommand\subsubsection{\@startsection{subsubsection}{3}{\z@}%
-                       {-18\p@ \@plus -4\p@ \@minus -4\p@}%
-                       {-0.5em \@plus -0.22em \@minus -0.1em}%
-                       {\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries\boldmath}}
-\renewcommand\paragraph{\@startsection{paragraph}{4}{\z@}%
-                       {-12\p@ \@plus -4\p@ \@minus -4\p@}%
-                       {-0.5em \@plus -0.22em \@minus -0.1em}%
-                       {\normalfont\normalsize\itshape}}
-\renewcommand\subparagraph[1]{\typeout{LLNCS warning: You should not use
-                  \string\subparagraph\space with this class}\vskip0.5cm
-You should not use \verb|\subparagraph| with this class.\vskip0.5cm}
-
-\DeclareMathSymbol{\Gamma}{\mathalpha}{letters}{"00}
-\DeclareMathSymbol{\Delta}{\mathalpha}{letters}{"01}
-\DeclareMathSymbol{\Theta}{\mathalpha}{letters}{"02}
-\DeclareMathSymbol{\Lambda}{\mathalpha}{letters}{"03}
-\DeclareMathSymbol{\Xi}{\mathalpha}{letters}{"04}
-\DeclareMathSymbol{\Pi}{\mathalpha}{letters}{"05}
-\DeclareMathSymbol{\Sigma}{\mathalpha}{letters}{"06}
-\DeclareMathSymbol{\Upsilon}{\mathalpha}{letters}{"07}
-\DeclareMathSymbol{\Phi}{\mathalpha}{letters}{"08}
-\DeclareMathSymbol{\Psi}{\mathalpha}{letters}{"09}
-\DeclareMathSymbol{\Omega}{\mathalpha}{letters}{"0A}
-
-\let\footnotesize\small
-
-\if@custvec
-\def\vec#1{\mathchoice{\mbox{\boldmath$\displaystyle#1$}}
-{\mbox{\boldmath$\textstyle#1$}}
-{\mbox{\boldmath$\scriptstyle#1$}}
-{\mbox{\boldmath$\scriptscriptstyle#1$}}}
-\fi
-
-\def\squareforqed{\hbox{\rlap{$\sqcap$}$\sqcup$}}
-\def\qed{\ifmmode\squareforqed\else{\unskip\nobreak\hfil
-\penalty50\hskip1em\null\nobreak\hfil\squareforqed
-\parfillskip=0pt\finalhyphendemerits=0\endgraf}\fi}
-
-\def\getsto{\mathrel{\mathchoice {\vcenter{\offinterlineskip
-\halign{\hfil
-$\displaystyle##$\hfil\cr\gets\cr\to\cr}}}
-{\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil$\textstyle##$\hfil\cr\gets
-\cr\to\cr}}}
-{\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil$\scriptstyle##$\hfil\cr\gets
-\cr\to\cr}}}
-{\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil$\scriptscriptstyle##$\hfil\cr
-\gets\cr\to\cr}}}}}
-\def\lid{\mathrel{\mathchoice {\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil
-$\displaystyle##$\hfil\cr<\cr\noalign{\vskip1.2pt}=\cr}}}
-{\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil$\textstyle##$\hfil\cr<\cr
-\noalign{\vskip1.2pt}=\cr}}}
-{\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil$\scriptstyle##$\hfil\cr<\cr
-\noalign{\vskip1pt}=\cr}}}
-{\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil$\scriptscriptstyle##$\hfil\cr
-<\cr
-\noalign{\vskip0.9pt}=\cr}}}}}
-\def\gid{\mathrel{\mathchoice {\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil
-$\displaystyle##$\hfil\cr>\cr\noalign{\vskip1.2pt}=\cr}}}
-{\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil$\textstyle##$\hfil\cr>\cr
-\noalign{\vskip1.2pt}=\cr}}}
-{\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil$\scriptstyle##$\hfil\cr>\cr
-\noalign{\vskip1pt}=\cr}}}
-{\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil$\scriptscriptstyle##$\hfil\cr
->\cr
-\noalign{\vskip0.9pt}=\cr}}}}}
-\def\grole{\mathrel{\mathchoice {\vcenter{\offinterlineskip
-\halign{\hfil
-$\displaystyle##$\hfil\cr>\cr\noalign{\vskip-1pt}<\cr}}}
-{\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil$\textstyle##$\hfil\cr
->\cr\noalign{\vskip-1pt}<\cr}}}
-{\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil$\scriptstyle##$\hfil\cr
->\cr\noalign{\vskip-0.8pt}<\cr}}}
-{\vcenter{\offinterlineskip\halign{\hfil$\scriptscriptstyle##$\hfil\cr
->\cr\noalign{\vskip-0.3pt}<\cr}}}}}
-\def\bbbr{{\rm I\!R}} %reelle Zahlen
-\def\bbbm{{\rm I\!M}}
-\def\bbbn{{\rm I\!N}} %natuerliche Zahlen
-\def\bbbf{{\rm I\!F}}
-\def\bbbh{{\rm I\!H}}
-\def\bbbk{{\rm I\!K}}
-\def\bbbp{{\rm I\!P}}
-\def\bbbone{{\mathchoice {\rm 1\mskip-4mu l} {\rm 1\mskip-4mu l}
-{\rm 1\mskip-4.5mu l} {\rm 1\mskip-5mu l}}}
-\def\bbbc{{\mathchoice {\setbox0=\hbox{$\displaystyle\rm C$}\hbox{\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.4\wd0\vrule height0.9\ht0\hss}\box0}}
-{\setbox0=\hbox{$\textstyle\rm C$}\hbox{\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.4\wd0\vrule height0.9\ht0\hss}\box0}}
-{\setbox0=\hbox{$\scriptstyle\rm C$}\hbox{\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.4\wd0\vrule height0.9\ht0\hss}\box0}}
-{\setbox0=\hbox{$\scriptscriptstyle\rm C$}\hbox{\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.4\wd0\vrule height0.9\ht0\hss}\box0}}}}
-\def\bbbq{{\mathchoice {\setbox0=\hbox{$\displaystyle\rm
-Q$}\hbox{\raise
-0.15\ht0\hbox to0pt{\kern0.4\wd0\vrule height0.8\ht0\hss}\box0}}
-{\setbox0=\hbox{$\textstyle\rm Q$}\hbox{\raise
-0.15\ht0\hbox to0pt{\kern0.4\wd0\vrule height0.8\ht0\hss}\box0}}
-{\setbox0=\hbox{$\scriptstyle\rm Q$}\hbox{\raise
-0.15\ht0\hbox to0pt{\kern0.4\wd0\vrule height0.7\ht0\hss}\box0}}
-{\setbox0=\hbox{$\scriptscriptstyle\rm Q$}\hbox{\raise
-0.15\ht0\hbox to0pt{\kern0.4\wd0\vrule height0.7\ht0\hss}\box0}}}}
-\def\bbbt{{\mathchoice {\setbox0=\hbox{$\displaystyle\rm
-T$}\hbox{\hbox to0pt{\kern0.3\wd0\vrule height0.9\ht0\hss}\box0}}
-{\setbox0=\hbox{$\textstyle\rm T$}\hbox{\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.3\wd0\vrule height0.9\ht0\hss}\box0}}
-{\setbox0=\hbox{$\scriptstyle\rm T$}\hbox{\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.3\wd0\vrule height0.9\ht0\hss}\box0}}
-{\setbox0=\hbox{$\scriptscriptstyle\rm T$}\hbox{\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.3\wd0\vrule height0.9\ht0\hss}\box0}}}}
-\def\bbbs{{\mathchoice
-{\setbox0=\hbox{$\displaystyle     \rm S$}\hbox{\raise0.5\ht0\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.35\wd0\vrule height0.45\ht0\hss}\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.55\wd0\vrule height0.5\ht0\hss}\box0}}
-{\setbox0=\hbox{$\textstyle        \rm S$}\hbox{\raise0.5\ht0\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.35\wd0\vrule height0.45\ht0\hss}\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.55\wd0\vrule height0.5\ht0\hss}\box0}}
-{\setbox0=\hbox{$\scriptstyle      \rm S$}\hbox{\raise0.5\ht0\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.35\wd0\vrule height0.45\ht0\hss}\raise0.05\ht0\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.5\wd0\vrule height0.45\ht0\hss}\box0}}
-{\setbox0=\hbox{$\scriptscriptstyle\rm S$}\hbox{\raise0.5\ht0\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.4\wd0\vrule height0.45\ht0\hss}\raise0.05\ht0\hbox
-to0pt{\kern0.55\wd0\vrule height0.45\ht0\hss}\box0}}}}
-\def\bbbz{{\mathchoice {\hbox{$\mathsf\textstyle Z\kern-0.4em Z$}}
-{\hbox{$\mathsf\textstyle Z\kern-0.4em Z$}}
-{\hbox{$\mathsf\scriptstyle Z\kern-0.3em Z$}}
-{\hbox{$\mathsf\scriptscriptstyle Z\kern-0.2em Z$}}}}
-
-\let\ts\,
-
-\setlength\leftmargini  {17\p@}
-\setlength\leftmargin    {\leftmargini}
-\setlength\leftmarginii  {\leftmargini}
-\setlength\leftmarginiii {\leftmargini}
-\setlength\leftmarginiv  {\leftmargini}
-\setlength  \labelsep  {.5em}
-\setlength  \labelwidth{\leftmargini}
-\addtolength\labelwidth{-\labelsep}
-
-\def\@listI{\leftmargin\leftmargini
-            \parsep 0\p@ \@plus1\p@ \@minus\p@
-            \topsep 8\p@ \@plus2\p@ \@minus4\p@
-            \itemsep0\p@}
-\let\@listi\@listI
-\@listi
-\def\@listii {\leftmargin\leftmarginii
-              \labelwidth\leftmarginii
-              \advance\labelwidth-\labelsep
-              \topsep    0\p@ \@plus2\p@ \@minus\p@}
-\def\@listiii{\leftmargin\leftmarginiii
-              \labelwidth\leftmarginiii
-              \advance\labelwidth-\labelsep
-              \topsep    0\p@ \@plus\p@\@minus\p@
-              \parsep    \z@
-              \partopsep \p@ \@plus\z@ \@minus\p@}
-
-\renewcommand\labelitemi{\normalfont\bfseries --}
-\renewcommand\labelitemii{$\m@th\bullet$}
-
-\setlength\arraycolsep{1.4\p@}
-\setlength\tabcolsep{1.4\p@}
-
-\def\tableofcontents{\chapter*{\contentsname\@mkboth{{\contentsname}}%
-                                                    {{\contentsname}}}
- \def\authcount##1{\setcounter{auco}{##1}\setcounter{@auth}{1}}
- \def\lastand{\ifnum\value{auco}=2\relax
-                 \unskip{} \andname\
-              \else
-                 \unskip \lastandname\
-              \fi}%
- \def\and{\stepcounter{@auth}\relax
-          \ifnum\value{@auth}=\value{auco}%
-             \lastand
-          \else
-             \unskip,
-          \fi}%
- \@starttoc{toc}\if@restonecol\twocolumn\fi}
-
-\def\l@part#1#2{\addpenalty{\@secpenalty}%
-   \addvspace{2em plus\p@}%  % space above part line
-   \begingroup
-     \parindent \z@
-     \rightskip \z@ plus 5em
-     \hrule\vskip5pt
-     \large               % same size as for a contribution heading
-     \bfseries\boldmath   % set line in boldface
-     \leavevmode          % TeX command to enter horizontal mode.
-     #1\par
-     \vskip5pt
-     \hrule
-     \vskip1pt
-     \nobreak             % Never break after part entry
-   \endgroup}
-
-\def\@dotsep{2}
-
-\def\hyperhrefextend{\ifx\hyper@anchor\@undefined\else
-{chapter.\thechapter}\fi}
-
-\def\addnumcontentsmark#1#2#3{%
-\addtocontents{#1}{\protect\contentsline{#2}{\protect\numberline
-                     {\thechapter}#3}{\thepage}\hyperhrefextend}}
-\def\addcontentsmark#1#2#3{%
-\addtocontents{#1}{\protect\contentsline{#2}{#3}{\thepage}\hyperhrefextend}}
-\def\addcontentsmarkwop#1#2#3{%
-\addtocontents{#1}{\protect\contentsline{#2}{#3}{0}\hyperhrefextend}}
-
-\def\@adcmk[#1]{\ifcase #1 \or
-\def\@gtempa{\addnumcontentsmark}%
-  \or    \def\@gtempa{\addcontentsmark}%
-  \or    \def\@gtempa{\addcontentsmarkwop}%
-  \fi\@gtempa{toc}{chapter}}
-\def\addtocmark{\@ifnextchar[{\@adcmk}{\@adcmk[3]}}
-
-\def\l@chapter#1#2{\addpenalty{-\@highpenalty}
- \vskip 1.0em plus 1pt \@tempdima 1.5em \begingroup
- \parindent \z@ \rightskip \@pnumwidth
- \parfillskip -\@pnumwidth
- \leavevmode \advance\leftskip\@tempdima \hskip -\leftskip
- {\large\bfseries\boldmath#1}\ifx0#2\hfil\null
- \else
-      \nobreak
-      \leaders\hbox{$\m@th \mkern \@dotsep mu.\mkern
-      \@dotsep mu$}\hfill
-      \nobreak\hbox to\@pnumwidth{\hss #2}%
- \fi\par
- \penalty\@highpenalty \endgroup}
-
-\def\l@title#1#2{\addpenalty{-\@highpenalty}
- \addvspace{8pt plus 1pt}
- \@tempdima \z@
- \begingroup
- \parindent \z@ \rightskip \@tocrmarg
- \parfillskip -\@tocrmarg
- \leavevmode \advance\leftskip\@tempdima \hskip -\leftskip
- #1\nobreak
- \leaders\hbox{$\m@th \mkern \@dotsep mu.\mkern
- \@dotsep mu$}\hfill
- \nobreak\hbox to\@pnumwidth{\hss #2}\par
- \penalty\@highpenalty \endgroup}
-
-\setcounter{tocdepth}{0}
-\newdimen\tocchpnum
-\newdimen\tocsecnum
-\newdimen\tocsectotal
-\newdimen\tocsubsecnum
-\newdimen\tocsubsectotal
-\newdimen\tocsubsubsecnum
-\newdimen\tocsubsubsectotal
-\newdimen\tocparanum
-\newdimen\tocparatotal
-\newdimen\tocsubparanum
-\tocchpnum=\z@            % no chapter numbers
-\tocsecnum=15\p@          % section 88. plus 2.222pt
-\tocsubsecnum=23\p@       % subsection 88.8 plus 2.222pt
-\tocsubsubsecnum=27\p@    % subsubsection 88.8.8 plus 1.444pt
-\tocparanum=35\p@         % paragraph 88.8.8.8 plus 1.666pt
-\tocsubparanum=43\p@      % subparagraph 88.8.8.8.8 plus 1.888pt
-\def\calctocindent{%
-\tocsectotal=\tocchpnum
-\advance\tocsectotal by\tocsecnum
-\tocsubsectotal=\tocsectotal
-\advance\tocsubsectotal by\tocsubsecnum
-\tocsubsubsectotal=\tocsubsectotal
-\advance\tocsubsubsectotal by\tocsubsubsecnum
-\tocparatotal=\tocsubsubsectotal
-\advance\tocparatotal by\tocparanum}
-\calctocindent
-
-\def\l@section{\@dottedtocline{1}{\tocchpnum}{\tocsecnum}}
-\def\l@subsection{\@dottedtocline{2}{\tocsectotal}{\tocsubsecnum}}
-\def\l@subsubsection{\@dottedtocline{3}{\tocsubsectotal}{\tocsubsubsecnum}}
-\def\l@paragraph{\@dottedtocline{4}{\tocsubsubsectotal}{\tocparanum}}
-\def\l@subparagraph{\@dottedtocline{5}{\tocparatotal}{\tocsubparanum}}
-
-\def\listoffigures{\@restonecolfalse\if@twocolumn\@restonecoltrue\onecolumn
- \fi\section*{\listfigurename\@mkboth{{\listfigurename}}{{\listfigurename}}}
- \@starttoc{lof}\if@restonecol\twocolumn\fi}
-\def\l@figure{\@dottedtocline{1}{0em}{1.5em}}
-
-\def\listoftables{\@restonecolfalse\if@twocolumn\@restonecoltrue\onecolumn
- \fi\section*{\listtablename\@mkboth{{\listtablename}}{{\listtablename}}}
- \@starttoc{lot}\if@restonecol\twocolumn\fi}
-\let\l@table\l@figure
-
-\renewcommand\listoffigures{%
-    \section*{\listfigurename
-      \@mkboth{\listfigurename}{\listfigurename}}%
-    \@starttoc{lof}%
-    }
-
-\renewcommand\listoftables{%
-    \section*{\listtablename
-      \@mkboth{\listtablename}{\listtablename}}%
-    \@starttoc{lot}%
-    }
-
-\ifx\oribibl\undefined
-\ifx\citeauthoryear\undefined
-\renewenvironment{thebibliography}[1]
-     {\section*{\refname}
-      \def\@biblabel##1{##1.}
-      \small
-      \list{\@biblabel{\@arabic\c@enumiv}}%
-           {\settowidth\labelwidth{\@biblabel{#1}}%
-            \leftmargin\labelwidth
-            \advance\leftmargin\labelsep
-            \if@openbib
-              \advance\leftmargin\bibindent
-              \itemindent -\bibindent
-              \listparindent \itemindent
-              \parsep \z@
-            \fi
-            \usecounter{enumiv}%
-            \let\p@enumiv\@empty
-            \renewcommand\theenumiv{\@arabic\c@enumiv}}%
-      \if@openbib
-        \renewcommand\newblock{\par}%
-      \else
-        \renewcommand\newblock{\hskip .11em \@plus.33em \@minus.07em}%
-      \fi
-      \sloppy\clubpenalty4000\widowpenalty4000%
-      \sfcode`\.=\@m}
-     {\def\@noitemerr
-       {\@latex@warning{Empty `thebibliography' environment}}%
-      \endlist}
-\def\@lbibitem[#1]#2{\item[{[#1]}\hfill]\if@filesw
-     {\let\protect\noexpand\immediate
-     \write\@auxout{\string\bibcite{#2}{#1}}}\fi\ignorespaces}
-\newcount\@tempcntc
-\def\@citex[#1]#2{\if@filesw\immediate\write\@auxout{\string\citation{#2}}\fi
-  \@tempcnta\z@\@tempcntb\m@ne\def\@citea{}\@cite{\@for\@citeb:=#2\do
-    {\@ifundefined
-       {b@\@citeb}{\@citeo\@tempcntb\m@ne\@citea\def\@citea{,}{\bfseries
-        ?}\@warning
-       {Citation `\@citeb' on page \thepage \space undefined}}%
-    {\setbox\z@\hbox{\global\@tempcntc0\csname b@\@citeb\endcsname\relax}%
-     \ifnum\@tempcntc=\z@ \@citeo\@tempcntb\m@ne
-       \@citea\def\@citea{,}\hbox{\csname b@\@citeb\endcsname}%
-     \else
-      \advance\@tempcntb\@ne
-      \ifnum\@tempcntb=\@tempcntc
-      \else\advance\@tempcntb\m@ne\@citeo
-      \@tempcnta\@tempcntc\@tempcntb\@tempcntc\fi\fi}}\@citeo}{#1}}
-\def\@citeo{\ifnum\@tempcnta>\@tempcntb\else
-               \@citea\def\@citea{,\,\hskip\z@skip}%
-               \ifnum\@tempcnta=\@tempcntb\the\@tempcnta\else
-               {\advance\@tempcnta\@ne\ifnum\@tempcnta=\@tempcntb \else
-                \def\@citea{--}\fi
-      \advance\@tempcnta\m@ne\the\@tempcnta\@citea\the\@tempcntb}\fi\fi}
-\else
-\renewenvironment{thebibliography}[1]
-     {\section*{\refname}
-      \small
-      \list{}%
-           {\settowidth\labelwidth{}%
-            \leftmargin\parindent
-            \itemindent=-\parindent
-            \labelsep=\z@
-            \if@openbib
-              \advance\leftmargin\bibindent
-              \itemindent -\bibindent
-              \listparindent \itemindent
-              \parsep \z@
-            \fi
-            \usecounter{enumiv}%
-            \let\p@enumiv\@empty
-            \renewcommand\theenumiv{}}%
-      \if@openbib
-        \renewcommand\newblock{\par}%
-      \else
-        \renewcommand\newblock{\hskip .11em \@plus.33em \@minus.07em}%
-      \fi
-      \sloppy\clubpenalty4000\widowpenalty4000%
-      \sfcode`\.=\@m}
-     {\def\@noitemerr
-       {\@latex@warning{Empty `thebibliography' environment}}%
-      \endlist}
-      \def\@cite#1{#1}%
-      \def\@lbibitem[#1]#2{\item[]\if@filesw
-        {\def\protect##1{\string ##1\space}\immediate
-      \write\@auxout{\string\bibcite{#2}{#1}}}\fi\ignorespaces}
-   \fi
-\else
-\@cons\@openbib@code{\noexpand\small}
-\fi
-
-\def\idxquad{\hskip 10\p@}% space that divides entry from number
-
-\def\@idxitem{\par\hangindent 10\p@}
-
-\def\subitem{\par\setbox0=\hbox{--\enspace}% second order
-                \noindent\hangindent\wd0\box0}% index entry
-
-\def\subsubitem{\par\setbox0=\hbox{--\,--\enspace}% third
-                \noindent\hangindent\wd0\box0}% order index entry
-
-\def\indexspace{\par \vskip 10\p@ plus5\p@ minus3\p@\relax}
-
-\renewenvironment{theindex}
-               {\@mkboth{\indexname}{\indexname}%
-                \thispagestyle{empty}\parindent\z@
-                \parskip\z@ \@plus .3\p@\relax
-                \let\item\par
-                \def\,{\relax\ifmmode\mskip\thinmuskip
-                             \else\hskip0.2em\ignorespaces\fi}%
-                \normalfont\small
-                \begin{multicols}{2}[\@makeschapterhead{\indexname}]%
-                }
-                {\end{multicols}}
-
-\renewcommand\footnoterule{%
-  \kern-3\p@
-  \hrule\@width 2truecm
-  \kern2.6\p@}
-  \newdimen\fnindent
-  \fnindent1em
-\long\def\@makefntext#1{%
-    \parindent \fnindent%
-    \leftskip \fnindent%
-    \noindent
-    \llap{\hb@xt@1em{\hss\@makefnmark\ }}\ignorespaces#1}
-
-\long\def\@makecaption#1#2{%
-  \vskip\abovecaptionskip
-  \sbox\@tempboxa{{\bfseries #1.} #2}%
-  \ifdim \wd\@tempboxa >\hsize
-    {\bfseries #1.} #2\par
-  \else
-    \global \@minipagefalse
-    \hb@xt@\hsize{\hfil\box\@tempboxa\hfil}%
-  \fi
-  \vskip\belowcaptionskip}
-
-\def\fps@figure{htbp}
-\def\fnum@figure{\figurename\thinspace\thefigure}
-\def \@floatboxreset {%
-        \reset@font
-        \small
-        \@setnobreak
-        \@setminipage
-}
-\def\fps@table{htbp}
-\def\fnum@table{\tablename~\thetable}
-\renewenvironment{table}
-               {\setlength\abovecaptionskip{0\p@}%
-                \setlength\belowcaptionskip{10\p@}%
-                \@float{table}}
-               {\end@float}
-\renewenvironment{table*}
-               {\setlength\abovecaptionskip{0\p@}%
-                \setlength\belowcaptionskip{10\p@}%
-                \@dblfloat{table}}
-               {\end@dblfloat}
-
-\long\def\@caption#1[#2]#3{\par\addcontentsline{\csname
-  ext@#1\endcsname}{#1}{\protect\numberline{\csname
-  the#1\endcsname}{\ignorespaces #2}}\begingroup
-    \@parboxrestore
-    \@makecaption{\csname fnum@#1\endcsname}{\ignorespaces #3}\par
-  \endgroup}
-
-% LaTeX does not provide a command to enter the authors institute
-% addresses. The \institute command is defined here.
-
-\newcounter{@inst}
-\newcounter{@auth}
-\newcounter{auco}
-\def\andname{and}
-\def\lastandname{\unskip, and}
-\newdimen\instindent
-\newbox\authrun
-\newtoks\authorrunning
-\newtoks\tocauthor
-\newbox\titrun
-\newtoks\titlerunning
-\newtoks\toctitle
-
-\def\clearheadinfo{\gdef\@author{No Author Given}%
-                   \gdef\@title{No Title Given}%
-                   \gdef\@subtitle{}%
-                   \gdef\@institute{No Institute Given}%
-                   \gdef\@thanks{}%
-                   \global\titlerunning={}\global\authorrunning={}%
-                   \global\toctitle={}\global\tocauthor={}}
-
-\def\institute#1{\gdef\@institute{#1}}
-
-\def\institutename{\par
- \begingroup
- \parskip=\z@
- \parindent=\z@
- \setcounter{@inst}{1}%
- \def\and{\par\stepcounter{@inst}%
- \noindent$^{\the@inst}$\enspace\ignorespaces}%
- \setbox0=\vbox{\def\thanks##1{}\@institute}%
- \ifnum\c@@inst=1\relax
- \else
-   \setcounter{footnote}{\c@@inst}%
-   \setcounter{@inst}{1}%
-   \noindent$^{\the@inst}$\enspace
- \fi
- \ignorespaces
- \@institute\par
- \endgroup}
-
-\def\@fnsymbol#1{\ensuremath{\ifcase#1\or\star\or{\star\star}\or
-   {\star\star\star}\or \dagger\or \ddagger\or
-   \mathchar "278\or \mathchar "27B\or \|\or **\or \dagger\dagger
-   \or \ddagger\ddagger \else\@ctrerr\fi}}
-
-\def\inst#1{\unskip$^{#1}$}
-\def\fnmsep{\unskip$^,$}
-\def\email#1{{\tt#1}}
-\AtBeginDocument{\@ifundefined{url}{\def\url#1{#1}}{}}
-\def\homedir{\~{ }}
-
-\def\subtitle#1{\gdef\@subtitle{#1}}
-\clearheadinfo
-
-\renewcommand\maketitle{\newpage
-  \refstepcounter{chapter}%
-  \stepcounter{section}%
-  \setcounter{section}{0}%
-  \setcounter{subsection}{0}%
-  \setcounter{figure}{0}
-  \setcounter{table}{0}
-  \setcounter{equation}{0}
-  \setcounter{footnote}{0}%
-  \begingroup
-    \parindent=\z@
-    \renewcommand\thefootnote{\@fnsymbol\c@footnote}%
-    \if@twocolumn
-      \ifnum \col@number=\@ne
-        \@maketitle
-      \else
-        \twocolumn[\@maketitle]%
-      \fi
-    \else
-      \newpage
-      \global\@topnum\z@   % Prevents figures from going at top of page.
-      \@maketitle
-    \fi
-    \thispagestyle{empty}\@thanks
-%
-    \def\\{\unskip\ \ignorespaces}\def\inst##1{\unskip{}}%
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doc/design-paper/sptor.tex

@@ -1,353 +0,0 @@
-\documentclass{llncs}
-
-\usepackage{url}
-\usepackage{amsmath}
-\usepackage{epsfig}
-
-\setlength{\textwidth}{5.9in}
-\setlength{\textheight}{8.4in}
-\setlength{\topmargin}{.5cm}
-\setlength{\oddsidemargin}{1cm}
-\setlength{\evensidemargin}{1cm}
-
-\newenvironment{tightlist}{\begin{list}{$\bullet$}{
-  \setlength{\itemsep}{0mm}
-    \setlength{\parsep}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\labelsep}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\labelwidth}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\topsep}{0mm}
-    }}{\end{list}}
-
-
-\newcommand{\workingnote}[1]{}        % The version that hides the note.
-%\newcommand{\workingnote}[1]{(**#1)}   % The version that makes the note visible.
-
-
-\begin{document}
-
-\title{Design challenges and social factors in deploying low-latency anonymity}
-% Could still use a better title -PFS
-
-\author{Roger Dingledine\inst{1} \and
-Nick Mathewson\inst{1} \and
-Paul Syverson\inst{2}}
-\institute{The Tor Project \email{<\{arma,nickm\}@torproject.org>} \and
-Naval Research Laboratory \email{<syverson@itd.nrl.navy.mil>}}
-
-\maketitle
-\pagestyle{plain}
-
-\begin{abstract}
-  There are many unexpected or unexpectedly difficult obstacles to
-  deploying anonymous communications.  We describe Tor (\emph{the}
-  onion routing), how to use it, our design philosophy, and some of
-  the challenges that we have faced and continue to face in building,
-  deploying, and sustaining a scalable, distributed, low-latency
-  anonymity network.
-\end{abstract}
-
-\section{Introduction}
-This article describes Tor, a widely-used low-latency general-purpose
-anonymous communication system, and discusses some unexpected
-challenges arising from our experiences deploying Tor.  We will tell
-you how to use it, who uses it, how it works, why we designed it the
-way we did, and why this makes it usable and stable.
-
-Tor is an overlay network for anonymizing TCP streams over the
-Internet~\cite{tor-design}.  Tor works on the real-world Internet,
-requires no special privileges or kernel modifications, requires
-little synchronization or coordination between nodes, and provides a
-reasonable trade-off between anonymity, usability, and efficiency.
-
-Since deployment in October 2003 the public Tor network has grown to
-about a thousand volunteer-operated nodes worldwide and over 110
-megabytes average traffic per second from hundreds of thousands of
-concurrent users. 
-
-\section{Tor Design and Design Philosophy: Distributed Trust and Usability}
-
-Tor enables users to connect to Internet sites without revealing their
-logical or physical locations to those sites or to observers.  It
-enables hosts to be publicly accessible yet have similar protection
-against location through its \emph{location-hidden services}.
-
-To connect to a remote server via Tor the client software first learns
-a %signed
-list of Tor nodes from several central \emph{directory servers} via a
-voting protocol (to avoid dependence on or complete trust in any one
-of these servers). It then incrementally creates a private pathway or
-\emph{circuit} across the network. This circuit consists of
-encrypted connections through authenticated Tor nodes
-whose public keys were obtained from the directory servers. The client
-software negotiates a separate set of encryption keys for each hop along the
-circuit. The nodes in the circuit are chosen at random by the client
-subject to a preference for higher performing nodes to allocate
-resources effectively and with a client-chosen preferred set of first
-nodes called \emph{entry guards} to complicate profiling attacks by
-internal adversaries~\cite{hs-attack}.
-The circuit is extended one node at a time, tunneling extensions
-through already established portions of the circuit, and each node
-along the way knows only the immediately previous and following nodes
-in the circuit, so no individual Tor node knows the complete path that
-each fixed-sized data packet (or \emph{cell}) will take.  Thus,
-neither an eavesdropper nor a compromised node can see both the
-connection's source and destination.  Later requests use a new
-circuit to complicate long-term linkability between different actions
-by a single user.
-
-Tor attempts to anonymize the transport layer, not the application
-layer.  Thus, applications such as SSH can provide
-authenticated communication that is hidden by Tor from outside observers.
-When anonymity from communication partners is desired,
-application-level protocols that transmit identifying
-information need additional scrubbing proxies, such as
-Privoxy~\cite{privoxy} for HTTP\@.  Furthermore, Tor does not relay
-arbitrary IP packets; it only anonymizes TCP streams and DNS requests.
-
-Tor, the third generation of deployed onion-routing
-designs~\cite{or-ih96,or-jsac98,tor-design}, was researched, developed,
-and deployed by the Naval Research Laboratory and the Free Haven
-Project under ONR and DARPA funding for secure government
-communications.  In 2005, continuing work by Free Haven was funded by
-the Electronic Frontier Foundation for maintaining civil liberties of
-ordinary citizens online. In 2006, The Tor Project incorporated as a
-non-profit and has received continued funding from the Omidyar Network,
-the U.S. International Broadcasting Bureau, and other groups to combat
-blocking and censorship on the Internet. This diversity of funding fits
-Tor's overall philosophy: a wide variety of interests helps maintain
-both the stability and the security of the network.
-
-Usability is also a central goal. Downloading and installing Tor is
-easy. Simply go to\\
-http://www.torproject.org/ and download.  Tor comes with install
-wizards and a GUI for major operating systems: GNU/Linux, OS X, and
-Windows. It also runs on various flavors of BSD and UNIX\@. Basic
-instructions, documentation, FAQs, etc.\ are available in many
-languages. The Tor GUI Vidalia makes server configuration easy, e.g.,
-choosing how much bandwidth to allocate to Tor, exit policy choices,
-etc. And, the GUI Torbutton allows Firefox users a one-click toggle of
-whether browsing goes through Tor or not.  Tor is easily configured by
-a site administrator to run at either individual desktops or just at a
-site firewall or combinations of these.
-
-The ideal Tor network would be practical, useful and anonymous. When
-trade-offs arise between these properties, Tor's research strategy has
-been to remain useful enough to attract many users, and practical
-enough to support them.  Only subject to these constraints do we try
-to maximize anonymity.  Tor thus differs from other deployed systems
-for traffic analysis resistance in its security and flexibility.  Mix
-networks such as
-% Mixmaster~\cite{mixmaster-spec} or its successor 
-Mixminion~\cite{minion-design} gain the highest degrees of practical
-anonymity at the expense of introducing highly variable delays, making
-them unsuitable for applications such as web browsing.  Commercial
-single-hop proxies~\cite{anonymizer} can provide good performance, but
-a single-point compromise can expose all users' traffic, and a
-single-point eavesdropper can perform traffic analysis on the entire
-network.  Also, their proprietary implementations place any
-infrastructure that depends on these single-hop solutions at the mercy
-of their providers' financial health as well as network security.
-There are numerous other designs for distributed anonymous low-latency
-communication~\cite{crowds-tissec,web-mix,freedom21-security,i2p,tarzan:ccs02,morphmix:fc04}.
-Some have been deployed or even commercialized; some exist only on
-paper. Though each has something unique to offer, we feel Tor has
-advantages over each of them that make it a superior choice for most
-users and applications. For example, unlike purely P2P designs we
-neither limit ordinary users to content and services available only
-within our network nor require them to take on responsibility for
-connections outside the network, unless they separately choose to run
-server nodes. Nonetheless because we support low-latency interactive
-communications, end-to-end \emph{traffic correlation}
-attacks~\cite{danezis:pet2004,defensive-dropping,SS03,hs-attack,bauer:tr2007}
-allow an attacker who can observe both ends of a communication to
-correlate packet timing and volume, quickly linking the initiator to
-her destination.
-
-
-Our defense lies in having a diverse enough set of nodes to prevent
-most real-world adversaries from being in the right places to attack
-users, by distributing each transaction over several nodes in the
-network.  This ``distributed trust'' approach means the Tor network
-can be safely operated and used by a wide variety of mutually
-distrustful users, providing sustainability and security.
-
-The Tor network has a broad range of users, making it difficult for
-eavesdroppers to track them or profile interests. These include
-ordinary citizens concerned about their privacy, corporations who
-don't want to reveal information to their competitors, and law
-enforcement and government intelligence agencies who need to do
-operations on the Internet without being noticed.  Naturally,
-organizations will not want to depend on others for their security.
-If most participating providers are reliable, Tor tolerates some
-hostile infiltration of the network.
-
-This distribution of trust is central to the Tor philosophy and
-pervades Tor at all levels: Onion routing has been open source since
-the mid-nineties (mistrusting users can inspect the code themselves);
-Tor is free software (anyone could take up the development of Tor from
-the current team); anyone can use Tor without license or charge (which
-encourages a broad user base with diverse interests); Tor is designed to be
-usable (also promotes a large, diverse user base) and configurable (so
-users can easily set up and run server nodes); the Tor
-infrastructure is run by volunteers (it is not dependent on the
-economic viability or business strategy of any company) who are
-scattered around the globe (not completely under the jurisdiction of
-any single country); ongoing development and deployment has been
-funded by diverse sources (development does not fully depend on
-funding from any one source or even funding for any one primary
-purpose or sources in any one jurisdiction). All of these contribute
-to Tor's resilience and sustainability.
-
-
-\section{Social challenges}
-
-Many of the issues the Tor project needs to address extend beyond
-system design and technology development. In particular, the Tor
-project's \emph{image} with respect to its users and the rest of the
-Internet impacts the security it can provide.  With this image issue
-in mind, this section discusses the Tor user base and Tor's
-interaction with other services on the Internet.
-
-\subsection{Communicating security}
-
-Usability for anonymity systems contributes to their security, because
-usability affects the possible anonymity set~\cite{econymics,back01}.
-Conversely, an unusable system attracts few users and thus can't
-provide much anonymity.
-
-This phenomenon has a second-order effect: knowing this, users should
-choose which anonymity system to use based in part on how usable and
-secure \emph{others} will find it, in order to get the protection of a
-larger anonymity set. Thus we might supplement the adage ``usability
-is a security parameter''~\cite{back01} with a new one: ``perceived
-usability is a security parameter.''~\cite{usability-network-effect}.
-
-
-
-\subsection{Reputability and perceived social value}
-Another factor impacting the network's security is its reputability,
-the perception of its social value based on its current user base. If
-Alice is the only user who has ever downloaded the software, it might
-be socially accepted, but she's not getting much anonymity. Add a
-thousand activists, and she's anonymous, but everyone thinks she's an
-activist too.  Add a thousand diverse citizens (cancer survivors,
-people concerned about identity theft, law enforcement agents, and so
-on) and now she's harder to profile.
-
-Furthermore, the network's reputability affects its operator base:
-more people are willing to run a service if they believe it will be
-used by human rights workers than if they believe it will be used
-exclusively for disreputable ends.  This effect becomes stronger if
-node operators themselves think they will be associated with their
-users' ends.
-
-So the more cancer survivors on Tor, the better for the human rights
-activists. The more malicious hackers, the worse for the normal
-users. Thus, reputability is an anonymity issue for two
-reasons. First, it impacts the sustainability of the network: a
-network that's always about to be shut down has difficulty attracting
-and keeping adequate nodes.  Second, a disreputable network is more
-vulnerable to legal and political attacks, since it will attract fewer
-supporters.
-
-Reputability becomes even more tricky in the case of privacy networks,
-since the good uses of the network (such as publishing by journalists
-in dangerous countries, protecting road warriors from profiling and
-potential physical harm, tracking of criminals by law enforcement,
-protecting corporate research interests, etc.) are typically kept private,
-whereas network abuses or other problems tend to be more widely
-publicized.
-
-
-\subsection{Abuse}
-\label{subsec:tor-and-blacklists}
-
-For someone willing to be antisocial or even break the law, Tor is
-usually a poor choice to hide bad behavior. For example, Tor nodes are
-publicly identified, unlike the million-node botnets that are now
-common on the Internet. Nonetheless, we always expected that,
-alongside legitimate users, Tor would also attract troublemakers who
-exploit Tor to abuse services on the Internet with vandalism, rude
-mail, and so on.  \emph{Exit policies} have allowed individual nodes
-to block access to specific IP/port ranges.  This approach aims to
-make operators more willing to run Tor by allowing them to prevent
-their nodes from being used for abusing particular services.  For
-example, by default Tor nodes block SMTP (port 25), to avoid the issue
-of spam.
-
-Exit policies are useful but insufficient: if not all nodes block a
-given service, that service may try to block Tor instead.  While being
-blockable is important to being good netizens, we would like to
-encourage services to allow anonymous access. Services should not need
-to decide between blocking legitimate anonymous use and allowing
-unlimited abuse.  Nonetheless, blocking IP addresses is a
-course-grained solution~\cite{netauth}: entire apartment buildings,
-campuses, and even countries sometimes share a single IP address.
-Also, whether intended or not, such blocking supports repression of
-free speech. In many locations where Internet access of various kinds
-is censored or even punished by imprisonment, Tor is a path both to
-the outside world and to others inside.  Blocking posts from Tor makes
-the job of censoring authorities easier.  This is a loss for both Tor
-and services that block, such as Wikipedia: we don't want to compete
-for (or divvy up) the NAT-protected entities of the world.  This is
-also unfortunate because there are relatively simple technical
-solutions~\cite{nym}.  Various schemes for escrowing anonymous posts
-until they are reviewed by editors would both prevent abuse and remove
-incentives for attempts to abuse. Further, pseudonymous reputation
-tracking of posters through Tor would allow those who establish
-adequate reputation to post without escrow~\cite{nym,nymble}.
-
-We stress that as far as we can tell, most Tor uses are not
-abusive. Most services have not complained, and others are actively
-working to find ways besides banning to cope with the abuse. For
-example, the Freenode IRC network had a problem with a coordinated
-group of abusers joining channels and subtly taking over the
-conversation; but when they labelled all users coming from Tor IP
-addresses as ``anonymous users,'' removing the ability of the abusers
-to blend in, the abusers stopped using Tor.  This is an illustration of
-how simple
-technical mechanisms can remove the ability to abuse anonymously
-without undermining the ability to communicate anonymously and can
-thus remove the incentive to attempt abusing in this way.
-
-
-
-\section{The Future}
-\label{sec:conclusion}
-
-Tor is the largest and most diverse low-latency anonymity network
-available, but we are still in the early stages. Several major
-questions remain.
-
-First, will our volunteer-based approach to sustainability continue to
-work as well in the long term as it has the first several years?
-Besides node operation, Tor research, deployment, maintainance, and
-development is increasingly done by volunteers: package maintenance
-for various OSes, document translation, GUI design and implementation,
-live CDs, specification of new design changes, etc.\
-%
-Second, Tor is only one of many components that preserve privacy
-online.  For applications where it is desirable to keep identifying
-information out of application traffic, someone must build more and
-better protocol-aware proxies that are usable by ordinary people.
-%
-Third, we need to maintain a reputation for social good, and learn how to
-coexist with the variety of Internet services and their established
-authentication mechanisms. We can't just keep escalating the blacklist
-standoff forever.
-%
-Fourth, the current Tor architecture hardly scales even to handle
-current user demand. We must deploy designs and incentives to further
-encourage clients to relay traffic too, without thereby trading away
-too much anonymity or other properties.
-
-These are difficult and open questions. Yet choosing not to solve them
-means leaving most users to a less secure network or no anonymizing
-network at all.\\
-
-\noindent{\bf Acknowledgment:} Thanks to Matt Edman for many
-  helpful comments on a draft of this article.
-\bibliographystyle{plain} \bibliography{tor-design}
-
-\end{document}
-

doc/design-paper/tor-design.bib

@@ -1,1493 +0,0 @@
-% hs-attack
-@inproceedings{hs-attack,
-  title = {Locating Hidden Servers},
-  author = {Lasse {\O}verlier and Paul Syverson}, 
-  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy}, 
-  year = {2006}, 
-  month = {May}, 
-  publisher = {IEEE CS},
-}
-
-
-@TechReport{bauer:tr2007,
-  author = 	 {Kevin Bauer and Damon McCoy and Dirk Grunwald and Tadayoshi Kohno and Douglas Sicker},
-  title = 	 {Low-Resource Routing Attacks Against Anonymous Systems},
-  institution =  {University of Colorado at Boulder},
-  year = 	 2007,
-  number = 	 {CU-CS-1025-07}
-}
-
-@inproceedings{bauer:wpes2007,
-  title = {Low-Resource Routing Attacks Against Tor},
-  author = {Kevin Bauer and Damon McCoy and Dirk Grunwald and Tadayoshi Kohno and Douglas Sicker},
-  booktitle = {{Proceedings of the Workshop on Privacy in the Electronic Society (WPES 2007)}},
-  year = {2007},
-  month = {October},
-  address = {Washington, DC, USA},
-}
-
-% fix me
-@misc{tannenbaum96,
-  author = "Andrew Tannenbaum",
-  title = "Computer Networks",
-  year = "1996",
-  publisher = "Prentice Hall, 3rd edition",
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-
-@article{ meadows96,
-    author = "Catherine Meadows",
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-
-@inproceedings{statistical-disclosure,
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-
-@inproceedings{eax,
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-}
-%  note = {Submitted to HotNets-II. \url{http://codeen.cs.princeton.edu/}},
-
-@Misc{anonymizer,
-  key =          {anonymizer},
-  title =        {The {Anonymizer}},
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-}
-
-@Misc{privoxy,
-  key =          {privoxy},
-  title =        {{Privoxy}},
-  note =         {\url{http://www.privoxy.org/}}
-}
-
-@Misc{i2p,
-  key =          {i2p},
-  title =        {{I2P}},
-  note =         {\url{http://www.i2p.net/}}
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-
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-  author = 	 {Jason Holt},
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-   publisher =    {Springer-Verlag, LNCS 2009},
-   year =        {2000},
-}
-%   pages =       {115--129},
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-@InProceedings{disad-free-routes,
-   author =      {Oliver Berthold and Andreas Pfitzmann and Ronny Standtke},
-   title =       {The disadvantages of free {MIX} routes and how to overcome
-                  them},
-   booktitle =   {Designing Privacy Enhancing Technologies: Workshop
-                  on Design Issue in Anonymity and Unobservability},
-   pages =       {30--45},
-   year =        2000,
-   editor =       {H. Federrath},
-   publisher =    {Springer-Verlag, LNCS 2009},
-}
-   %note =        {\url{http://www.tik.ee.ethz.ch/~weiler/lehre/netsec/Unterlagen/anon/
-   %                    disadvantages_berthold.pdf}},
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-@InProceedings{boneh00,
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-@InProceedings{goldschlag98,
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-   year =        1998,
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-@InProceedings{syverson98,
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-   pages =       {2--13},
-   year =        1998,
-   address =     {Rockport Massachusetts},
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-}
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-@Misc{shoup-iso,
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-@Misc{shoup-oaep,
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-@misc{echolot,
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-@Misc{mixmaster-attacks,
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-@Misc{mixmaster-spec,
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-   year =        {2003},
-   month =       {July},
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-  year =         1999,
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-
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-@Misc{socks5,
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-  year =         1996,
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-   year =        {1998},
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-}
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-   year =        {1998},
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-}
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-   %note =        {\url{http://www.eskimo.com/~weidai/mix-net.txt}},
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-@misc{neochaum,
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-   pages =       {275--289},
-   year =        {1997},
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-@InProceedings{PIK,
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-@Misc{pgpfaq,
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-}
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-@Article{riordan-schneier,
-   author =      {James Riordan and Bruce Schneier},
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-@Article{crowds-tissec,
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-  title =        {Crowds: Anonymity for Web Transactions},
-  journal =      {ACM TISSEC},
-  year =         1998,
-  volume =       1,
-  number =       1,
-  pages =        {66--92},
-  month =        {June},
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-   journal =     {{DIMACS} Technical Report (Revised)},
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-   number =      {15},
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-@Misc{advogato,
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-   pages =       {59--72},
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-@Misc{freedom-nyms,
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-   year =        {1999},
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-   day =         {21},
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-@techreport{freedom2-arch,
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-@techreport{freedom21-security,
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-@inproceedings{cfs:sosp01,
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-@Misc{pk-relations,
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-  pages =       {126--141},
-  year =        2001,
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-@Misc{realtime-mix,
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-  author =       {Krista Bennett and Christian Grothoff},
-  title =        {{GAP} -- practical anonymous networking},
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-@Article{hordes-jcs,
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-  number =       3,
-  pages =        {213--240}
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-@TechReport{herbivore,
-  author =       {Sharad Goel and Mark Robson and Milo Polte and Emin G\"{u}n Sirer},
-  title =        {Herbivore: A Scalable and Efficient Protocol for Anonymous Communication},
-  institution =  {Cornell University Computing and Information Science},
-  year =         2003,
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-  pages =        {58--70},
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-@phdthesis{ian-thesis,
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-  year =         1998,
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-@Misc{tcp-over-tcp-is-bad,
-  key =          {tcp-over-tcp-is-bad},
-  title =        {Why {TCP} Over {TCP} Is A Bad Idea},
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-  note =         {\url{http://sites.inka.de/sites/bigred/devel/tcp-tcp.html}}
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-  year = {2002},
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-@inproceedings{wright03,
-  title = {Defending Anonymous Communication Against Passive Logging Attacks},
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-@Misc{jap-backdoor,
-  author={{The AN.ON Project}},
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-  year = {2003},
-  month = {Sept},
-  note = {\url{http://www.acm.org/sigs/sigecom/exchanges/volume_4_(03)/4.2-Shubina.pdf}},
-}
-
-@inproceedings{tor-design,
-  title = {Tor: The Second-Generation Onion Router},
-  author = {Roger Dingledine and Nick Mathewson and Paul Syverson},
-  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 13th USENIX Security Symposium},
-  year = {2004},
-  month = {August},
-  note = {\url{https://www.torproject.org/tor-design.pdf}}
-}
-
-@inproceedings{flow-correlation04,
-  title = {On Flow Correlation Attacks and Countermeasures in Mix Networks},
-  author = {Ye Zhu and Xinwen Fu and Bryan Graham and Riccardo Bettati and Wei Zhao},
-  booktitle = {Proceedings of Privacy Enhancing Technologies workshop (PET 2004)},
-  year = {2004},
-  month = {May},
-  series = {LNCS},
-  note = {\url{http://students.cs.tamu.edu/xinwenfu/paper/PET04.pdf}},
-}
-
-@InProceedings{danezis:pet2004,
-  author = "George Danezis",
-  title = "The Traffic Analysis of Continuous-Time Mixes",
-  booktitle= {Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PET 2004)},
-  editor = {David Martin and Andrei Serjantov},
-  month = {May},
-  year = {2004},
-  series = {LNCS},
-  note = {\url{http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/users/gd216/cmm2.pdf}},
-}
-
-@inproceedings{feamster:wpes2004,
-  title = {Location Diversity in Anonymity Networks},
-  author = {Nick Feamster and Roger Dingledine},
-  booktitle = {{Proceedings of the Workshop on Privacy in the Electronic Society (WPES 2004)}},
-  year = {2004},
-  month = {October},
-  address = {Washington, DC, USA},
-  note = {\url{http://freehaven.net/doc/routing-zones/routing-zones.ps}},
-}
-
-@inproceedings{koepsell:wpes2004,
-  title = {How to Achieve Blocking Resistance for Existing Systems Enabling Anonymous Web Surfing},
-  author = {Stefan K\"opsell and Ulf Hilling},
-  booktitle = {{Proceedings of the Workshop on Privacy in the Electronic Society (WPES 2004)}},
-  year = {2004},
-  month = {October},
-  address = {Washington, DC, USA},
-  note = {\url{http://freehaven.net/anonbib/papers/p103-koepsell.pdf}},
-}
-
-@inproceedings{sync-batching,
-  title = {Synchronous Batching: From Cascades to Free Routes},
-  author = {Roger Dingledine and Vitaly Shmatikov and Paul Syverson},
-  booktitle = {Proceedings of Privacy Enhancing Technologies workshop (PET 2004)},
-  editor = {David Martin and Andrei Serjantov},
-  year = {2004},
-  month = {May},
-  series = {LNCS},
-  note = {\url{http://freehaven.net/doc/sync-batching/sync-batching.pdf}},
-}
-
-@InProceedings{e2e-traffic,
-  author = "Nick Mathewson and Roger Dingledine",
-  title = "Practical Traffic Analysis: Extending and Resisting Statistical Disclosure",
-  booktitle= {Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PET 2004)},
-  editor = {David Martin and Andrei Serjantov},
-  month = {May},
-  year = {2004},
-  series = {LNCS},
-  note = {\url{http://freehaven.net/doc/e2e-traffic/e2e-traffic.pdf}},
-}
-
-@Misc{dtls,
-   author =      {E. Rescorla and N. Modadugu},
-   title =       {{Datagram Transport Layer Security}},
-   howpublished = {IETF Draft},
-   month =       {December},
-   year =        {2003},
-   note =        {\url{http://www.ietf.org/internet-drafts/draft-rescorla-dtls-02.txt}},
-}
-
-@InProceedings{usability-network-effect,
-   author={Roger Dingledine and Nick Mathewson},
-   title={Anonymity Loves Company: Usability and the Network Effect},
-   booktitle = {Designing Security Systems That People Can Use},
-   year = {2005},
-   publisher = {O'Reilly Media},
-}
-
-@inproceedings{usability:weis2006,
-  title = {Anonymity Loves Company: Usability and the Network Effect},
-  author = {Roger Dingledine and Nick Mathewson},
-  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Fifth Workshop on the Economics of Information Security
-        (WEIS 2006)},
-  year = {2006},
-  month = {June},
-  address = {Cambridge, UK},
-  bookurl = {http://weis2006.econinfosec.org/},
-  note = {\url{http://freehaven.net/doc/wupss04/usability.pdf}},
-}
-
-@Misc{six-four,
-  key =          {six-four},
-  title =        {{The Six/Four System}},
-  note =         {\url{http://sourceforge.net/projects/sixfour/}}
-}
-
-@inproceedings{clayton:pet2006,
-  title = {Ignoring the Great Firewall of China},
-  author = {Richard Clayton and Steven J. Murdoch and Robert N. M. Watson},
-  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PET 2006)},
-  year = {2006},
-  month = {June},
-  address = {Cambridge, UK},
-  publisher = {Springer},
-  bookurl = {http://petworkshop.org/2006/},
-  note = {\url{http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/ignoring.pdf}},
-}
-
-@Misc{zuckerman-threatmodels,
-  key =          {zuckerman-threatmodels},
-  title =        {We've got to adjust some of our threat models},
-  author =       {Ethan Zuckerman},
-  note =         {\url{http://www.ethanzuckerman.com/blog/?p=1019}}
-}
-
-@Misc{cgiproxy,
-  key =          {cgiproxy},
-  title =        {{CGIProxy: HTTP/FTP Proxy in a CGI Script}},
-  author =       {James Marshall},
-  note =         {\url{http://www.jmarshall.com/tools/cgiproxy/}}
-}
-
-@Misc{circumventor,
-  key =          {circumventor},
-  title =        {{How to install the Circumventor program}},
-  author =       {Bennett Haselton},
-  note =         {\url{http://www.peacefire.org/circumventor/simple-circumventor-instructions.html}}
-}
-
-@Misc{psiphon,
-  key =          {psiphon},
-  title =        {Psiphon},
-  author =       {Ronald Deibert et al},
-  note =         {\url{http://psiphon.civisec.org/}}
-}
-
-@InProceedings{tcpstego,                                                                    author =       {Steven J. Murdoch and Stephen Lewis},
-  title =        {Embedding Covert Channels into {TCP/IP}},
-  booktitle = {Information Hiding: 7th International Workshop},
-  pages  =       {247--261},
-  year =         {2005},
-  editor =       {Mauro Barni and Jordi Herrera-Joancomart\'{\i} and
-Stefan Katzenbeisser and Fernando P\'{e}rez-Gonz\'{a}lez},
-  volume =       {3727},
-  series =       {LNCS},
-  address =      {Barcelona, Catalonia (Spain)},
-  month =        {June},
-  publisher = {Springer-Verlag},
-  url = {http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~sjm217/papers/ih05coverttcp.pdf}
-}
-
-@phdthesis{blossom-thesis,
-  title = {Perspective Access Networks},
-  author = {Geoffrey Goodell},
-  school = {Harvard University},
-  year = {2006},
-  month = {July},
-  note = {\url{http://afs.eecs.harvard.edu/~goodell/thesis.pdf}},
-}
-
-@inproceedings{tap:pet2006,
-  title = {On the Security of the Tor Authentication Protocol},
-  author = {Ian Goldberg},
-  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PET 2006)},
-  year = {2006},
-  month = {June},
-  address = {Cambridge, UK},
-  publisher = {Springer},
-  bookurl = {http://petworkshop.org/2006/},
-  note = {\url{http://www.cypherpunks.ca/~iang/pubs/torsec.pdf}},
-}
-
-@inproceedings{rep-anon,
-  title = {{Reputation in P2P Anonymity Systems}},
-  author = {Roger Dingledine and Nick Mathewson and Paul Syverson},
-  booktitle = {Proceedings of Workshop on Economics of Peer-to-Peer Systems},
-  year = {2003},
-  month = {June},
-  note = {\url{http://freehaven.net/doc/econp2p03/econp2p03.pdf}},
-}
-
-@misc{tor-challenges,
-   author       = {Roger Dingledine and Nick Mathewson and Paul Syverson},
-   title        = {Challenges in deploying low-latency anonymity},
-   year         = {2005},
-   note         = {Manuscript}
-}
-
-@InProceedings{chaum-blind,
-  author =       {David Chaum},
-  title =        {Blind Signatures for Untraceable Payments},
-  booktitle =    {Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of Crypto 82},
-  pages =        {199--203},
-  year =         1983,
-  editor =       {D. Chaum and R.L. Rivest and A.T. Sherman},
-  publisher =    {Plenum Press}
-}
-
-@Article{netauth,
-  author = {Geoffrey Goodell and Paul Syverson},
-  title = {The Right Place at the Right Time: Examining the use of network location in authentication and abuse prevention},
-  journal = 	 {Communications of the ACM},
-  year = 	 2007,
-  volume = 	 50,
-  number = 	 5,
-  pages = 	 {113--117},
-  month = 	 {May}
-}
-
-@misc{ip-to-country,
-  key = {ip-to-country},
-  title = {IP-to-country database},
-  note = {\url{http://ip-to-country.webhosting.info/}},
-}
-
-@misc{mackinnon-personal,
-  author = {Rebecca MacKinnon},
-  title = {Private communication},
-  year = {2006},
-}
-
-@inproceedings{pet05-bissias,
-  title = {Privacy Vulnerabilities in Encrypted HTTP Streams},
-  author = {George Dean Bissias and Marc Liberatore and Brian Neil Levine},
-  booktitle = {Proceedings of Privacy Enhancing Technologies workshop (PET 2005)},
-  year = {2005},
-  month = {May},
-  note = {\url{http://prisms.cs.umass.edu/brian/pubs/bissias.liberatore.pet.2005.pdf}},
-}
-
-@InProceedings{infranet,
-   author =      {Nick Feamster and Magdalena Balazinska and Greg Harfst and Hari Balakrishnan and David Karger},
-   title =       {Infranet: Circumventing Web Censorship and Surveillance},
-   booktitle =   {Proceedings of the 11th USENIX Security Symposium},
-   year =        {2002},
-   month =       {August},
-   note = {\url{http://nms.lcs.mit.edu/~feamster/papers/usenixsec2002.pdf}},
-}
-
-@techreport{ ptacek98insertion,
-  author = "Thomas H. Ptacek and Timothy N. Newsham",
-  title = "Insertion, Evasion, and Denial of Service: Eluding Network Intrusion Detection",
-  institution = "Secure Networks, Inc.",
-  address = "Suite 330, 1201 5th Street S.W, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, T2R-0Y6",
-  year = "1998",
-  url = "citeseer.ist.psu.edu/ptacek98insertion.html",
-}
-
-@inproceedings{active-wardens,
-  author = "Gina Fisk and Mike Fisk and Christos Papadopoulos and Joshua Neil",
-  title = "Eliminating Steganography in Internet Traffic with Active Wardens",
-  booktitle = {Information Hiding Workshop (IH 2002)},
-  year = {2002},
-  month = {October},
-  editor = {Fabien Petitcolas},
-  publisher = {Springer-Verlag, LNCS 2578},
-}
-
-@inproceedings{clog-the-queue,
-  title = {Don't Clog the Queue: Circuit Clogging and Mitigation in {P2P} anonymity schemes},
-  author = {Jon McLachlan and Nicholas Hopper},
-  booktitle = {Proceedings of Financial Cryptography (FC '08)},
-  year = {2008},
-  month = {January},
-}
-
-@inproceedings{snader08,
-  title = {A Tune-up for {Tor}: Improving Security and Performance in the {Tor} Network},
-  author = {Robin Snader and Nikita Borisov},
-  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Network and Distributed Security Symposium - {NDSS} '08},
-  year = {2008},
-  month = {February},
-  publisher = {Internet Society},
-}
-
-@inproceedings{murdoch-pet2008,
-  title = {Metrics for Security and Performance in Low-Latency Anonymity Networks},
-  author = {Steven J. Murdoch and Robert N. M. Watson},
-  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PETS 2008)},
-  year = {2008},
-  month = {July},
-  address = {Leuven, Belgium},
-  pages = {115--132},
-  editor = {Nikita Borisov and Ian Goldberg},
-  publisher = {Springer},
-  bookurl = {http://petsymposium.org/2008/},
-}
-
-@inproceedings{danezis-pet2008,
-  title = {Bridging and Fingerprinting: Epistemic Attacks on Route Selection},
-  author = {George Danezis and Paul Syverson},
-  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Privacy Enhancing Technologies (PETS 2008)},
-  year = {2008},
-  month = {July},
-  address = {Leuven, Belgium},
-  pages = {133--150},
-  editor = {Nikita Borisov and Ian Goldberg},
-  publisher = {Springer},
-  bookurl = {http://petsymposium.org/2008/},
-}
-
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-%%% mode: latex
-%%% TeX-master: "tor-design"
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-
-         
-<title> Tor: The Second-Generation Onion Router </title>
-</head>
-<body>
- 
-<h1 align="center">Tor: The Second-Generation Onion Router </h1> 
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<h3 align="center">
-Roger Dingledine, The Free Haven Project, <tt>arma@freehaven.net</tt><br>
-Nick Mathewson, The Free Haven Project, <tt>nickm@freehaven.net</tt><br>
-Paul Syverson, Naval Research Lab, <tt>syverson@itd.nrl.navy.mil</tt> </h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<h2> Abstract</h2>
-We present Tor, a circuit-based low-latency anonymous communication
-service. This second-generation Onion Routing system addresses limitations
-in the original design by adding perfect forward secrecy, congestion
-control, directory servers, integrity checking, configurable exit policies,
-and a practical design for location-hidden services via rendezvous
-points. Tor works on the real-world
-Internet, requires no special privileges or kernel modifications, requires
-little synchronization or coordination between nodes, and provides a
-reasonable tradeoff between anonymity, usability, and efficiency.
-We briefly describe our experiences with an international network of
-more than 30 nodes. We close with a list of open problems in anonymous communication.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc1">
-<a name="sec:intro">
-1</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Overview</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Onion Routing is a distributed overlay network designed to anonymize
-TCP-based applications like web browsing, secure shell,
-and instant messaging. Clients choose a path through the network and
-build a <em>circuit</em>, in which each node (or "onion router" or "OR")
-in the path knows its predecessor and successor, but no other nodes in
-the circuit.  Traffic flows down the circuit in fixed-size
-<em>cells</em>, which are unwrapped by a symmetric key at each node
-(like the layers of an onion) and relayed downstream. The
-Onion Routing project published several design and analysis
-papers [<a href="#or-ih96" name="CITEor-ih96">27</a>,<a href="#or-jsac98" name="CITEor-jsac98">41</a>,<a href="#or-discex00" name="CITEor-discex00">48</a>,<a href="#or-pet00" name="CITEor-pet00">49</a>]. While a wide area Onion
-Routing network was deployed briefly, the only long-running
-public implementation was a fragile
-proof-of-concept that ran on a single machine. Even this simple deployment
-processed connections from over sixty thousand distinct IP addresses from
-all over the world at a rate of about fifty thousand per day.
-But many critical design and deployment issues were never
-resolved, and the design has not been updated in years. Here
-we describe Tor, a protocol for asynchronous, loosely federated onion
-routers that provides the following improvements over the old Onion
-Routing design:
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Perfect forward secrecy:</b> In the original Onion Routing design,
-a single hostile node could record traffic and
-later compromise successive nodes in the circuit and force them
-to decrypt it. Rather than using a single multiply encrypted data
-structure (an <em>onion</em>) to lay each circuit,
-Tor now uses an incremental or <em>telescoping</em> path-building design,
-where the initiator negotiates session keys with each successive hop in
-the circuit.  Once these keys are deleted, subsequently compromised nodes
-cannot decrypt old traffic.  As a side benefit, onion replay detection
-is no longer necessary, and the process of building circuits is more
-reliable, since the initiator knows when a hop fails and can then try
-extending to a new node.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Separation of "protocol cleaning" from anonymity:</b>
-Onion Routing originally required a separate "application
-proxy" for each supported application protocol &mdash; most of which were
-never written, so many applications were never supported.  Tor uses the
-standard and near-ubiquitous SOCKS&nbsp;[<a href="#socks4" name="CITEsocks4">32</a>] proxy interface, allowing
-us to support most TCP-based programs without modification.  Tor now
-relies on the filtering features of privacy-enhancing
-application-level proxies such as Privoxy&nbsp;[<a href="#privoxy" name="CITEprivoxy">39</a>], without trying
-to duplicate those features itself.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>No mixing, padding, or traffic shaping (yet):</b> Onion
-Routing originally called for batching and reordering cells as they arrived,
-assumed padding between ORs, and in
-later designs added padding between onion proxies (users) and
-ORs&nbsp;[<a href="#or-ih96" name="CITEor-ih96">27</a>,<a href="#or-jsac98" name="CITEor-jsac98">41</a>].  Tradeoffs between padding protection
-and cost were discussed, and <em>traffic shaping</em> algorithms were
-theorized&nbsp;[<a href="#or-pet00" name="CITEor-pet00">49</a>] to provide good security without expensive
-padding, but no concrete padding scheme was suggested.
-Recent research&nbsp;[<a href="#econymics" name="CITEeconymics">1</a>]
-and deployment experience&nbsp;[<a href="#freedom21-security" name="CITEfreedom21-security">4</a>] suggest that this
-level of resource use is not practical or economical; and even full
-link padding is still vulnerable&nbsp;[<a href="#defensive-dropping" name="CITEdefensive-dropping">33</a>]. Thus,
-until we have a proven and convenient design for traffic shaping or
-low-latency mixing that improves anonymity against a realistic
-adversary, we leave these strategies out.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Many TCP streams can share one circuit:</b> Onion Routing originally
-built a separate circuit for each
-application-level request, but this required
-multiple public key operations for every request, and also presented
-a threat to anonymity from building so many circuits; see
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:maintaining-anonymity">9</a>.  Tor multiplexes multiple TCP
-streams along each circuit to improve efficiency and anonymity.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Leaky-pipe circuit topology:</b> Through in-band signaling
-within the circuit, Tor initiators can direct traffic to nodes partway
-down the circuit. This novel approach
-allows traffic to exit the circuit from the middle &mdash; possibly
-frustrating traffic shape and volume attacks based on observing the end
-of the circuit. (It also allows for long-range padding if
-future research shows this to be worthwhile.)
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Congestion control:</b> Earlier anonymity designs do not
-address traffic bottlenecks. Unfortunately, typical approaches to
-load balancing and flow control in overlay networks involve inter-node
-control communication and global views of traffic. Tor's decentralized
-congestion control uses end-to-end acks to maintain anonymity
-while allowing nodes at the edges of the network to detect congestion
-or flooding and send less data until the congestion subsides.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Directory servers:</b> The earlier Onion Routing design
-planned to flood state information through the network &mdash; an approach
-that can be unreliable and complex. Tor takes a simplified view toward distributing this
-information. Certain more trusted nodes act as <em>directory
-servers</em>: they provide signed directories describing known
-routers and their current state. Users periodically download them
-via HTTP.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Variable exit policies:</b> Tor provides a consistent mechanism
-for each node to advertise a policy describing the hosts
-and ports to which it will connect. These exit policies are critical
-in a volunteer-based distributed infrastructure, because each operator
-is comfortable with allowing different types of traffic to exit
-from his node.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>End-to-end integrity checking:</b> The original Onion Routing
-design did no integrity checking on data. Any node on the
-circuit could change the contents of data cells as they passed by &mdash; for
-example, to alter a connection request so it would connect
-to a different webserver, or to `tag' encrypted traffic and look for
-corresponding corrupted traffic at the network edges&nbsp;[<a href="#minion-design" name="CITEminion-design">15</a>].
-Tor hampers these attacks by verifying data integrity before it leaves
-the network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Rendezvous points and hidden services:</b>
-Tor provides an integrated mechanism for responder anonymity via
-location-protected servers.  Previous Onion Routing designs included
-long-lived "reply onions" that could be used to build circuits
-to a hidden server, but these reply onions did not provide forward
-security, and became useless if any node in the path went down
-or rotated its keys.  In Tor, clients negotiate <i>rendezvous points</i>
-to connect with hidden servers; reply onions are no longer required.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Unlike Freedom&nbsp;[<a href="#freedom2-arch" name="CITEfreedom2-arch">8</a>], Tor does not require OS kernel
-patches or network stack support.  This prevents us from anonymizing
-non-TCP protocols, but has greatly helped our portability and
-deployability.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We have implemented all of the above features, including rendezvous
-points. Our source code is
-available under a free license, and Tor
-is not covered by the patent that affected distribution and use of
-earlier versions of Onion Routing.
-We have deployed a wide-area alpha network
-to test the design, to get more experience with usability
-and users, and to provide a research platform for experimentation.
-As of this writing, the network stands at 32 nodes spread over two continents.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We review previous work in Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:related-work">2</a>, describe
-our goals and assumptions in Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:assumptions">3</a>,
-and then address the above list of improvements in
-Sections&nbsp;<a href="#sec:design">4</a>,&nbsp;<a href="#sec:rendezvous">5</a>, and&nbsp;<a href="#sec:other-design">6</a>.
-We summarize
-in Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:attacks">7</a> how our design stands up to
-known attacks, and talk about our early deployment experiences in
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:in-the-wild">8</a>. We conclude with a list of open problems in
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:maintaining-anonymity">9</a> and future work for the Onion
-Routing project in Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:conclusion">10</a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc2">
-<a name="sec:related-work">
-2</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Related work</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Modern anonymity systems date to Chaum's <b>Mix-Net</b>
-design&nbsp;[<a href="#chaum-mix" name="CITEchaum-mix">10</a>]. Chaum
-proposed hiding the correspondence between sender and recipient by
-wrapping messages in layers of public-key cryptography, and relaying them
-through a path composed of "mixes."  Each mix in turn
-decrypts, delays, and re-orders messages before relaying them
-onward.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Subsequent relay-based anonymity designs have diverged in two
-main directions. Systems like <b>Babel</b>&nbsp;[<a href="#babel" name="CITEbabel">28</a>],
-<b>Mixmaster</b>&nbsp;[<a href="#mixmaster-spec" name="CITEmixmaster-spec">36</a>],
-and <b>Mixminion</b>&nbsp;[<a href="#minion-design" name="CITEminion-design">15</a>] have tried
-to maximize anonymity at the cost of introducing comparatively large and
-variable latencies. Because of this decision, these <em>high-latency</em>
-networks resist strong global adversaries,
-but introduce too much lag for interactive tasks like web browsing,
-Internet chat, or SSH connections.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Tor belongs to the second category: <em>low-latency</em> designs that
-try to anonymize interactive network traffic. These systems handle
-a variety of bidirectional protocols. They also provide more convenient
-mail delivery than the high-latency anonymous email
-networks, because the remote mail server provides explicit and timely
-delivery confirmation. But because these designs typically
-involve many packets that must be delivered quickly, it is
-difficult for them to prevent an attacker who can eavesdrop both ends of the
-communication from correlating the timing and volume
-of traffic entering the anonymity network with traffic leaving it&nbsp;[<a href="#SS03" name="CITESS03">45</a>].
-These
-protocols are similarly vulnerable to an active adversary who introduces
-timing patterns into traffic entering the network and looks
-for correlated patterns among exiting traffic.
-Although some work has been done to frustrate these attacks, most designs
-protect primarily against traffic analysis rather than traffic
-confirmation (see Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:threat-model">3.1</a>).
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The simplest low-latency designs are single-hop proxies such as the
-<b>Anonymizer</b>&nbsp;[<a href="#anonymizer" name="CITEanonymizer">3</a>]: a single trusted server strips the
-data's origin before relaying it.  These designs are easy to
-analyze, but users must trust the anonymizing proxy.
-Concentrating the traffic to this single point increases the anonymity set
-(the people a given user is hiding among), but it is vulnerable if the
-adversary can observe all traffic entering and leaving the proxy.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-More complex are distributed-trust, circuit-based anonymizing systems.
-In these designs, a user establishes one or more medium-term bidirectional
-end-to-end circuits, and tunnels data in fixed-size cells.
-Establishing circuits is computationally expensive and typically
-requires public-key
-cryptography, whereas relaying cells is comparatively inexpensive and
-typically requires only symmetric encryption.
-Because a circuit crosses several servers, and each server only knows
-the adjacent servers in the circuit, no single server can link a
-user to her communication partners.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The <b>Java Anon Proxy</b> (also known as JAP or Web MIXes) uses fixed shared
-routes known as <em>cascades</em>.  As with a single-hop proxy, this
-approach aggregates users into larger anonymity sets, but again an
-attacker only needs to observe both ends of the cascade to bridge all
-the system's traffic.  The Java Anon Proxy's design
-calls for padding between end users and the head of the
-cascade&nbsp;[<a href="#web-mix" name="CITEweb-mix">7</a>]. However, it is not demonstrated whether the current
-implementation's padding policy improves anonymity.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>PipeNet</b>&nbsp;[<a href="#back01" name="CITEback01">5</a>,<a href="#pipenet" name="CITEpipenet">12</a>], another low-latency design proposed
-around the same time as Onion Routing, gave
-stronger anonymity but allowed a single user to shut
-down the network by not sending. Systems like <b>ISDN
-mixes</b>&nbsp;[<a href="#isdn-mixes" name="CITEisdn-mixes">38</a>] were designed for other environments with
-different assumptions.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In P2P designs like <b>Tarzan</b>&nbsp;[<a href="#tarzan:ccs02" name="CITEtarzan:ccs02">24</a>] and
-<b>MorphMix</b>&nbsp;[<a href="#morphmix:fc04" name="CITEmorphmix:fc04">43</a>], all participants both generate
-traffic and relay traffic for others. These systems aim to conceal
-whether a given peer originated a request
-or just relayed it from another peer. While Tarzan and MorphMix use
-layered encryption as above, <b>Crowds</b>&nbsp;[<a href="#crowds-tissec" name="CITEcrowds-tissec">42</a>] simply assumes
-an adversary who cannot observe the initiator: it uses no public-key
-encryption, so any node on a circuit can read users' traffic.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Hordes</b>&nbsp;[<a href="#hordes-jcs" name="CITEhordes-jcs">34</a>] is based on Crowds but also uses multicast
-responses to hide the initiator. <b>Herbivore</b>&nbsp;[<a href="#herbivore" name="CITEherbivore">25</a>] and
-<b>P</b><sup><b>5</b></sup>&nbsp;[<a href="#p5" name="CITEp5">46</a>] go even further, requiring broadcast.
-These systems are designed primarily for communication among peers,
-although Herbivore users can make external connections by
-requesting a peer to serve as a proxy.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Systems like <b>Freedom</b> and the original Onion Routing build circuits
-all at once, using a layered "onion" of public-key encrypted messages,
-each layer of which provides session keys and the address of the
-next server in the circuit. Tor as described herein, Tarzan, MorphMix,
-<b>Cebolla</b>&nbsp;[<a href="#cebolla" name="CITEcebolla">9</a>], and Rennhard's <b>Anonymity Network</b>&nbsp;[<a href="#anonnet" name="CITEanonnet">44</a>]
-build circuits
-in stages, extending them one hop at a time.
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsubsec:constructing-a-circuit">4.2</a> describes how this
-approach enables perfect forward secrecy.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Circuit-based designs must choose which protocol layer
-to anonymize. They may intercept IP packets directly, and
-relay them whole (stripping the source address) along the
-circuit&nbsp;[<a href="#freedom2-arch" name="CITEfreedom2-arch">8</a>,<a href="#tarzan:ccs02" name="CITEtarzan:ccs02">24</a>].  Like
-Tor, they may accept TCP streams and relay the data in those streams,
-ignoring the breakdown of that data into TCP
-segments&nbsp;[<a href="#morphmix:fc04" name="CITEmorphmix:fc04">43</a>,<a href="#anonnet" name="CITEanonnet">44</a>]. Finally, like Crowds, they may accept
-application-level protocols such as HTTP and relay the application
-requests themselves.
-Making this protocol-layer decision requires a compromise between flexibility
-and anonymity.  For example, a system that understands HTTP
-can strip
-identifying information from requests, can take advantage of caching
-to limit the number of requests that leave the network, and can batch
-or encode requests to minimize the number of connections.
-On the other hand, an IP-level anonymizer can handle nearly any protocol,
-even ones unforeseen by its designers (though these systems require
-kernel-level modifications to some operating systems, and so are more
-complex and less portable). TCP-level anonymity networks like Tor present
-a middle approach: they are application neutral (so long as the
-application supports, or can be tunneled across, TCP), but by treating
-application connections as data streams rather than raw TCP packets,
-they avoid the inefficiencies of tunneling TCP over
-TCP.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Distributed-trust anonymizing systems need to prevent attackers from
-adding too many servers and thus compromising user paths.
-Tor relies on a small set of well-known directory servers, run by
-independent parties, to decide which nodes can
-join. Tarzan and MorphMix allow unknown users to run servers, and use
-a limited resource (like IP addresses) to prevent an attacker from
-controlling too much of the network.  Crowds suggests requiring
-written, notarized requests from potential crowd members.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Anonymous communication is essential for censorship-resistant
-systems like Eternity&nbsp;[<a href="#eternity" name="CITEeternity">2</a>], Free&nbsp;Haven&nbsp;[<a href="#freehaven-berk" name="CITEfreehaven-berk">19</a>],
-Publius&nbsp;[<a href="#publius" name="CITEpublius">53</a>], and Tangler&nbsp;[<a href="#tangler" name="CITEtangler">52</a>]. Tor's rendezvous
-points enable connections between mutually anonymous entities; they
-are a building block for location-hidden servers, which are needed by
-Eternity and Free&nbsp;Haven.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc3">
-<a name="sec:assumptions">
-3</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Design goals and assumptions</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<font size="+1"><b>Goals</b></font><br />
-Like other low-latency anonymity designs, Tor seeks to frustrate
-attackers from linking communication partners, or from linking
-multiple communications to or from a single user.  Within this
-main goal, however, several considerations have directed
-Tor's evolution.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Deployability:</b> The design must be deployed and used in the
-real world.  Thus it
-must not be expensive to run (for example, by requiring more bandwidth
-than volunteers are willing to provide); must not place a heavy
-liability burden on operators (for example, by allowing attackers to
-implicate onion routers in illegal activities); and must not be
-difficult or expensive to implement (for example, by requiring kernel
-patches, or separate proxies for every protocol).  We also cannot
-require non-anonymous parties (such as websites)
-to run our software.  (Our rendezvous point design does not meet
-this goal for non-anonymous users talking to hidden servers,
-however; see Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:rendezvous">5</a>.)
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Usability:</b> A hard-to-use system has fewer users &mdash; and because
-anonymity systems hide users among users, a system with fewer users
-provides less anonymity.  Usability is thus not only a convenience:
-it is a security requirement&nbsp;[<a href="#econymics" name="CITEeconymics">1</a>,<a href="#back01" name="CITEback01">5</a>]. Tor should
-therefore not
-require modifying familiar applications; should not introduce prohibitive
-delays;
-and should require as few configuration decisions
-as possible.  Finally, Tor should be easily implementable on all common
-platforms; we cannot require users to change their operating system
-to be anonymous.  (Tor currently runs on Win32, Linux,
-Solaris, BSD-style Unix, MacOS X, and probably others.)
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Flexibility:</b> The protocol must be flexible and well-specified,
-so Tor can serve as a test-bed for future research.
-Many of the open problems in low-latency anonymity
-networks, such as generating dummy traffic or preventing Sybil
-attacks&nbsp;[<a href="#sybil" name="CITEsybil">22</a>], may be solvable independently from the issues
-solved by
-Tor. Hopefully future systems will not need to reinvent Tor's design.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Simple design:</b> The protocol's design and security
-parameters must be well-understood. Additional features impose implementation
-and complexity costs; adding unproven techniques to the design threatens
-deployability, readability, and ease of security analysis. Tor aims to
-deploy a simple and stable system that integrates the best accepted
-approaches to protecting anonymity.<br />
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<font size="+1"><b>Non-goals</b></font><a name="subsec:non-goals">
-</a><br />
-In favoring simple, deployable designs, we have explicitly deferred
-several possible goals, either because they are solved elsewhere, or because
-they are not yet solved.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Not peer-to-peer:</b> Tarzan and MorphMix aim to scale to completely
-decentralized peer-to-peer environments with thousands of short-lived
-servers, many of which may be controlled by an adversary.  This approach
-is appealing, but still has many open
-problems&nbsp;[<a href="#tarzan:ccs02" name="CITEtarzan:ccs02">24</a>,<a href="#morphmix:fc04" name="CITEmorphmix:fc04">43</a>].
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Not secure against end-to-end attacks:</b> Tor does not claim
-to completely solve end-to-end timing or intersection
-attacks. Some approaches, such as having users run their own onion routers,
-may help;
-see Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:maintaining-anonymity">9</a> for more discussion.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>No protocol normalization:</b> Tor does not provide <em>protocol
-normalization</em> like Privoxy or the Anonymizer. If senders want anonymity from
-responders while using complex and variable
-protocols like HTTP, Tor must be layered with a filtering proxy such
-as Privoxy to hide differences between clients, and expunge protocol
-features that leak identity.
-Note that by this separation Tor can also provide services that
-are anonymous to the network yet authenticated to the responder, like
-SSH. Similarly, Tor does not integrate
-tunneling for non-stream-based protocols like UDP; this must be
-provided by an external service if appropriate.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Not steganographic:</b> Tor does not try to conceal who is connected
-to the network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc3.1">
-<a name="subsec:threat-model">
-3.1</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Threat Model</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-A global passive adversary is the most commonly assumed threat when
-analyzing theoretical anonymity designs. But like all practical
-low-latency systems, Tor does not protect against such a strong
-adversary. Instead, we assume an adversary who can observe some fraction
-of network traffic; who can generate, modify, delete, or delay
-traffic;  who can operate onion routers of his own; and who can
-compromise some fraction of the onion routers.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In low-latency anonymity systems that use layered encryption, the
-adversary's typical goal is to observe both the initiator and the
-responder. By observing both ends, passive attackers can confirm a
-suspicion that Alice is
-talking to Bob if the timing and volume patterns of the traffic on the
-connection are distinct enough; active attackers can induce timing
-signatures on the traffic to force distinct patterns. Rather
-than focusing on these <em>traffic confirmation</em> attacks,
-we aim to prevent <em>traffic
-analysis</em> attacks, where the adversary uses traffic patterns to learn
-which points in the network he should attack.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Our adversary might try to link an initiator Alice with her
-communication partners, or try to build a profile of Alice's
-behavior. He might mount passive attacks by observing the network edges
-and correlating traffic entering and leaving the network &mdash; by
-relationships in packet timing, volume, or externally visible
-user-selected
-options. The adversary can also mount active attacks by compromising
-routers or keys; by replaying traffic; by selectively denying service
-to trustworthy routers to move users to
-compromised routers, or denying service to users to see if traffic
-elsewhere in the
-network stops; or by introducing patterns into traffic that can later be
-detected. The adversary might subvert the directory servers to give users
-differing views of network state. Additionally, he can try to decrease
-the network's reliability by attacking nodes or by performing antisocial
-activities from reliable nodes and trying to get them taken down &mdash; making
-the network unreliable flushes users to other less anonymous
-systems, where they may be easier to attack. We summarize
-in Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:attacks">7</a> how well the Tor design defends against
-each of these attacks.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc4">
-<a name="sec:design">
-4</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;The Tor Design</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The Tor network is an overlay network; each onion router (OR)
-runs as a normal
-user-level process without any special privileges.
-Each onion router maintains a TLS&nbsp;[<a href="#TLS" name="CITETLS">17</a>]
-connection to every other onion router.
-Each user
-runs local software called an onion proxy (OP) to fetch directories,
-establish circuits across the network,
-and handle connections from user applications.  These onion proxies accept
-TCP streams and multiplex them across the circuits. The onion
-router on the other side
-of the circuit connects to the requested destinations
-and relays data.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Each onion router maintains a long-term identity key and a short-term
-onion key. The identity
-key is used to sign TLS certificates, to sign the OR's <em>router
-descriptor</em> (a summary of its keys, address, bandwidth, exit policy,
-and so on), and (by directory servers) to sign directories. The onion key is used to decrypt requests
-from users to set up a circuit and negotiate ephemeral keys. 
-The TLS protocol also establishes a short-term link key when communicating
-between ORs. Short-term keys are rotated periodically and
-independently, to limit the impact of key compromise.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:cells">4.1</a> presents the fixed-size
-<em>cells</em> that are the unit of communication in Tor. We describe
-in Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:circuits">4.2</a> how circuits are
-built, extended, truncated, and destroyed. Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:tcp">4.3</a>
-describes how TCP streams are routed through the network.  We address
-integrity checking in Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:integrity-checking">4.4</a>,
-and resource limiting in Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:rate-limit">4.5</a>.
-Finally,
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:congestion">4.6</a> talks about congestion control and
-fairness issues.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.1">
-<a name="subsec:cells">
-4.1</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Cells</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Onion routers communicate with one another, and with users' OPs, via
-TLS connections with ephemeral keys.  Using TLS conceals the data on
-the connection with perfect forward secrecy, and prevents an attacker
-from modifying data on the wire or impersonating an OR.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Traffic passes along these connections in fixed-size cells.  Each cell
-is 512 bytes, and consists of a header and a payload. The header includes a circuit
-identifier (circID) that specifies which circuit the cell refers to
-(many circuits can be multiplexed over the single TLS connection), and
-a command to describe what to do with the cell's payload.  (Circuit
-identifiers are connection-specific: each circuit has a different
-circID on each OP/OR or OR/OR connection it traverses.)
-Based on their command, cells are either <em>control</em> cells, which are
-always interpreted by the node that receives them, or <em>relay</em> cells,
-which carry end-to-end stream data.   The control cell commands are:
-<em>padding</em> (currently used for keepalive, but also usable for link
-padding); <em>create</em> or <em>created</em> (used to set up a new circuit);
-and <em>destroy</em> (to tear down a circuit).
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Relay cells have an additional header (the relay header) at the front
-of the payload, containing a streamID (stream identifier: many streams can
-be multiplexed over a circuit); an end-to-end checksum for integrity
-checking; the length of the relay payload; and a relay command.
-The entire contents of the relay header and the relay cell payload
-are encrypted or decrypted together as the relay cell moves along the
-circuit, using the 128-bit AES cipher in counter mode to generate a
-cipher stream.  The relay commands are: <em>relay
-data</em> (for data flowing down the stream), <em>relay begin</em> (to open a
-stream), <em>relay end</em> (to close a stream cleanly), <em>relay
-teardown</em> (to close a broken stream), <em>relay connected</em>
-(to notify the OP that a relay begin has succeeded), <em>relay
-extend</em> and <em>relay extended</em> (to extend the circuit by a hop,
-and to acknowledge), <em>relay truncate</em> and <em>relay truncated</em>
-(to tear down only part of the circuit, and to acknowledge), <em>relay
-sendme</em> (used for congestion control), and <em>relay drop</em> (used to
-implement long-range dummies).
-We give a visual overview of cell structure plus the details of relay
-cell structure, and then describe each of these cell types and commands
-in more detail below.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<a name="tth_fIg1">
-</a> <center><img src="cell-struct.png" alt="cell-struct.png" />
-</center>
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.2">
-<a name="subsec:circuits">
-4.2</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Circuits and streams</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Onion Routing originally built one circuit for each
-TCP stream.  Because building a circuit can take several tenths of a
-second (due to public-key cryptography and network latency),
-this design imposed high costs on applications like web browsing that
-open many TCP streams.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In Tor, each circuit can be shared by many TCP streams.  To avoid
-delays, users construct circuits preemptively.  To limit linkability
-among their streams, users' OPs build a new circuit
-periodically if the previous ones have been used,
-and expire old used circuits that no longer have any open streams.
-OPs consider rotating to a new circuit once a minute: thus
-even heavy users spend negligible time
-building circuits, but a limited number of requests can be linked
-to each other through a given exit node. Also, because circuits are built
-in the background, OPs can recover from failed circuit creation
-without harming user experience.<br />
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<a name="tth_fIg1">
-</a> <center><img src="interaction.png" alt="interaction.png" />
-
-<center>Figure 1: Alice builds a two-hop circuit and begins fetching a web page.</center>
-<a name="fig:interaction">
-</a>
-</center>
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<a name="subsubsec:constructing-a-circuit"></a>
-<font size="+1"><b>Constructing a circuit</b></font>
-<br />
-A user's OP constructs circuits incrementally, negotiating a
-symmetric key with each OR on the circuit, one hop at a time. To begin
-creating a new circuit, the OP (call her Alice) sends a
-<em>create</em> cell to the first node in her chosen path (call him Bob).
-(She chooses a new
-circID C<sub>AB</sub> not currently used on the connection from her to Bob.)
-The <em>create</em> cell's
-payload contains the first half of the Diffie-Hellman handshake
-(g<sup>x</sup>), encrypted to the onion key of Bob. Bob
-responds with a <em>created</em> cell containing g<sup>y</sup>
-along with a hash of the negotiated key K=g<sup>xy</sup>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Once the circuit has been established, Alice and Bob can send one
-another relay cells encrypted with the negotiated
-key.<a href="#tthFtNtAAB" name="tthFrefAAB"><sup>1</sup></a>  More detail is given in
-the next section.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-To extend the circuit further, Alice sends a <em>relay extend</em> cell
-to Bob, specifying the address of the next OR (call her Carol), and
-an encrypted g<sup>x<sub>2</sub></sup> for her.  Bob copies the half-handshake into a
-<em>create</em> cell, and passes it to Carol to extend the circuit.
-(Bob chooses a new circID C<sub>BC</sub> not currently used on the connection
-between him and Carol.  Alice never needs to know this circID; only Bob
-associates C<sub>AB</sub> on his connection with Alice to C<sub>BC</sub> on
-his connection with Carol.)
-When Carol responds with a <em>created</em> cell, Bob wraps the payload
-into a <em>relay extended</em> cell and passes it back to Alice.  Now
-the circuit is extended to Carol, and Alice and Carol share a common key
-K<sub>2</sub> = g<sup>x<sub>2</sub> y<sub>2</sub></sup>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-To extend the circuit to a third node or beyond, Alice
-proceeds as above, always telling the last node in the circuit to
-extend one hop further.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-This circuit-level handshake protocol achieves unilateral entity
-authentication (Alice knows she's handshaking with the OR, but
-the OR doesn't care who is opening the circuit &mdash; Alice uses no public key
-and remains anonymous) and unilateral key authentication
-(Alice and the OR agree on a key, and Alice knows only the OR learns
-it). It also achieves forward
-secrecy and key freshness. More formally, the protocol is as follows
-(where E<sub>PK<sub>Bob</sub></sub>(&#183;) is encryption with Bob's public key,
-H is a secure hash function, and <font face="symbol">|</font
-> is concatenation):
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<a name="tth_tAb1">
-</a> 
-<table>
-<tr><td align="right">Alice </td><td align="center">-&#62; </td><td align="center">Bob </td><td>: E<sub>PK<sub>Bob</sub></sub>(g<sup>x</sup>) </td></tr>
-<tr><td align="right">Bob </td><td align="center">-&#62; </td><td align="center">Alice </td><td>: g<sup>y</sup>, H(K <font face="symbol">|</font
-> "<span class="roman">handshake</span>")
-</td></tr></table>
-
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- In the second step, Bob proves that it was he who received g<sup>x</sup>,
-and who chose y. We use PK encryption in the first step
-(rather than, say, using the first two steps of STS, which has a
-signature in the second step) because a single cell is too small to
-hold both a public key and a signature. Preliminary analysis with the
-NRL protocol analyzer&nbsp;[<a href="#meadows96" name="CITEmeadows96">35</a>] shows this protocol to be
-secure (including perfect forward secrecy) under the
-traditional Dolev-Yao model.<br />
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<font size="+1"><b>Relay cells</b></font><br />
-Once Alice has established the circuit (so she shares keys with each
-OR on the circuit), she can send relay cells.
-Upon receiving a relay
-cell, an OR looks up the corresponding circuit, and decrypts the relay
-header and payload with the session key for that circuit.
-If the cell is headed away from Alice the OR then checks whether the
-decrypted cell has a valid digest (as an optimization, the first
-two bytes of the integrity check are zero, so in most cases we can avoid
-computing the hash).
-If valid, it accepts the relay cell and processes it as described
-below.  Otherwise,
-the OR looks up the circID and OR for the
-next step in the circuit, replaces the circID as appropriate, and
-sends the decrypted relay cell to the next OR.  (If the OR at the end
-of the circuit receives an unrecognized relay cell, an error has
-occurred, and the circuit is torn down.)
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-OPs treat incoming relay cells similarly: they iteratively unwrap the
-relay header and payload with the session keys shared with each
-OR on the circuit, from the closest to farthest.
-If at any stage the digest is valid, the cell must have
-originated at the OR whose encryption has just been removed.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-To construct a relay cell addressed to a given OR, Alice assigns the
-digest, and then iteratively
-encrypts the cell payload (that is, the relay header and payload) with
-the symmetric key of each hop up to that OR.  Because the digest is
-encrypted to a different value at each step, only at the targeted OR
-will it have a meaningful value.<a href="#tthFtNtAAC" name="tthFrefAAC"><sup>2</sup></a>
-This <em>leaky pipe</em> circuit topology
-allows Alice's streams to exit at different ORs on a single circuit.
-Alice may choose different exit points because of their exit policies,
-or to keep the ORs from knowing that two streams
-originate from the same person.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-When an OR later replies to Alice with a relay cell, it
-encrypts the cell's relay header and payload with the single key it
-shares with Alice, and sends the cell back toward Alice along the
-circuit.  Subsequent ORs add further layers of encryption as they
-relay the cell back to Alice.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-To tear down a circuit, Alice sends a <em>destroy</em> control
-cell. Each OR in the circuit receives the <em>destroy</em> cell, closes
-all streams on that circuit, and passes a new <em>destroy</em> cell
-forward. But just as circuits are built incrementally, they can also
-be torn down incrementally: Alice can send a <em>relay
-truncate</em> cell to a single OR on a circuit. That OR then sends a
-<em>destroy</em> cell forward, and acknowledges with a
-<em>relay truncated</em> cell. Alice can then extend the circuit to
-different nodes, without signaling to the intermediate nodes (or
-a limited observer) that she has changed her circuit.
-Similarly, if a node on the circuit goes down, the adjacent
-node can send a <em>relay truncated</em> cell back to Alice.  Thus the
-"break a node and see which circuits go down"
-attack&nbsp;[<a href="#freedom21-security" name="CITEfreedom21-security">4</a>] is weakened.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.3">
-<a name="subsec:tcp">
-4.3</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Opening and closing streams</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-When Alice's application wants a TCP connection to a given
-address and port, it asks the OP (via SOCKS) to make the
-connection. The OP chooses the newest open circuit (or creates one if
-needed), and chooses a suitable OR on that circuit to be the
-exit node (usually the last node, but maybe others due to exit policy
-conflicts; see Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:exitpolicies">6.2</a>.) The OP then opens
-the stream by sending a <em>relay begin</em> cell to the exit node,
-using a new random streamID. Once the
-exit node connects to the remote host, it responds
-with a <em>relay connected</em> cell.  Upon receipt, the OP sends a
-SOCKS reply to notify the application of its success. The OP
-now accepts data from the application's TCP stream, packaging it into
-<em>relay data</em> cells and sending those cells along the circuit to
-the chosen OR.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-There's a catch to using SOCKS, however &mdash; some applications pass the
-alphanumeric hostname to the Tor client, while others resolve it into
-an IP address first and then pass the IP address to the Tor client. If
-the application does DNS resolution first, Alice thereby reveals her
-destination to the remote DNS server, rather than sending the hostname
-through the Tor network to be resolved at the far end. Common applications
-like Mozilla and SSH have this flaw.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-With Mozilla, the flaw is easy to address: the filtering HTTP
-proxy called Privoxy gives a hostname to the Tor client, so Alice's
-computer never does DNS resolution.
-But a portable general solution, such as is needed for
-SSH, is
-an open problem. Modifying or replacing the local nameserver
-can be invasive, brittle, and unportable. Forcing the resolver
-library to prefer TCP rather than UDP is hard, and also has
-portability problems. Dynamically intercepting system calls to the
-resolver library seems a promising direction. We could also provide
-a tool similar to <em>dig</em> to perform a private lookup through the
-Tor network. Currently, we encourage the use of privacy-aware proxies
-like Privoxy wherever possible.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Closing a Tor stream is analogous to closing a TCP stream: it uses a
-two-step handshake for normal operation, or a one-step handshake for
-errors. If the stream closes abnormally, the adjacent node simply sends a
-<em>relay teardown</em> cell. If the stream closes normally, the node sends
-a <em>relay end</em> cell down the circuit, and the other side responds with
-its own <em>relay end</em> cell. Because
-all relay cells use layered encryption, only the destination OR knows
-that a given relay cell is a request to close a stream.  This two-step
-handshake allows Tor to support TCP-based applications that use half-closed
-connections.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.4">
-<a name="subsec:integrity-checking">
-4.4</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Integrity checking on streams</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Because the old Onion Routing design used a stream cipher without integrity
-checking, traffic was
-vulnerable to a malleability attack: though the attacker could not
-decrypt cells, any changes to encrypted data
-would create corresponding changes to the data leaving the network.
-This weakness allowed an adversary who could guess the encrypted content
-to change a padding cell to a destroy
-cell; change the destination address in a <em>relay begin</em> cell to the
-adversary's webserver; or change an FTP command from
-<tt>dir</tt> to <tt>rm&nbsp;*</tt>. (Even an external
-adversary could do this, because the link encryption similarly used a
-stream cipher.)
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Because Tor uses TLS on its links, external adversaries cannot modify
-data. Addressing the insider malleability attack, however, is
-more complex.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We could do integrity checking of the relay cells at each hop, either
-by including hashes or by using an authenticating cipher mode like
-EAX&nbsp;[<a href="#eax" name="CITEeax">6</a>], but there are some problems. First, these approaches
-impose a message-expansion overhead at each hop, and so we would have to
-either leak the path length or waste bytes by padding to a maximum
-path length. Second, these solutions can only verify traffic coming
-from Alice: ORs would not be able to produce suitable hashes for
-the intermediate hops, since the ORs on a circuit do not know the
-other ORs' session keys. Third, we have already accepted that our design
-is vulnerable to end-to-end timing attacks; so tagging attacks performed
-within the circuit provide no additional information to the attacker.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Thus, we check integrity only at the edges of each stream. (Remember that
-in our leaky-pipe circuit topology, a stream's edge could be any hop
-in the circuit.) When Alice
-negotiates a key with a new hop, they each initialize a SHA-1
-digest with a derivative of that key,
-thus beginning with randomness that only the two of them know.
-Then they each incrementally add to the SHA-1 digest the contents of
-all relay cells they create, and include with each relay cell the
-first four bytes of the current digest.  Each also keeps a SHA-1
-digest of data received, to verify that the received hashes are correct.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-To be sure of removing or modifying a cell, the attacker must be able
-to deduce the current digest state (which depends on all
-traffic between Alice and Bob, starting with their negotiated key).
-Attacks on SHA-1 where the adversary can incrementally add to a hash
-to produce a new valid hash don't work, because all hashes are
-end-to-end encrypted across the circuit.  The computational overhead
-of computing the digests is minimal compared to doing the AES
-encryption performed at each hop of the circuit. We use only four
-bytes per cell to minimize overhead; the chance that an adversary will
-correctly guess a valid hash
-is
-acceptably low, given that the OP or OR tear down the circuit if they
-receive a bad hash.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.5">
-<a name="subsec:rate-limit">
-4.5</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Rate limiting and fairness</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Volunteers are more willing to run services that can limit
-their bandwidth usage. To accommodate them, Tor servers use a
-token bucket approach&nbsp;[<a href="#tannenbaum96" name="CITEtannenbaum96">50</a>] to
-enforce a long-term average rate of incoming bytes, while still
-permitting short-term bursts above the allowed bandwidth.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Because the Tor protocol outputs about the same number of bytes as it
-takes in, it is sufficient in practice to limit only incoming bytes.
-With TCP streams, however, the correspondence is not one-to-one:
-relaying a single incoming byte can require an entire 512-byte cell.
-(We can't just wait for more bytes, because the local application may
-be awaiting a reply.) Therefore, we treat this case as if the entire
-cell size had been read, regardless of the cell's fullness.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Further, inspired by Rennhard et al's design in&nbsp;[<a href="#anonnet" name="CITEanonnet">44</a>], a
-circuit's edges can heuristically distinguish interactive streams from bulk
-streams by comparing the frequency with which they supply cells.  We can
-provide good latency for interactive streams by giving them preferential
-service, while still giving good overall throughput to the bulk
-streams. Such preferential treatment presents a possible end-to-end
-attack, but an adversary observing both
-ends of the stream can already learn this information through timing
-attacks.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc4.6">
-<a name="subsec:congestion">
-4.6</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Congestion control</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Even with bandwidth rate limiting, we still need to worry about
-congestion, either accidental or intentional. If enough users choose the
-same OR-to-OR connection for their circuits, that connection can become
-saturated. For example, an attacker could send a large file
-through the Tor network to a webserver he runs, and then
-refuse to read any of the bytes at the webserver end of the
-circuit. Without some congestion control mechanism, these bottlenecks
-can propagate back through the entire network. We don't need to
-reimplement full TCP windows (with sequence numbers,
-the ability to drop cells when we're full and retransmit later, and so
-on),
-because TCP already guarantees in-order delivery of each
-cell.
-We describe our response below.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Circuit-level throttling:</b>
-To control a circuit's bandwidth usage, each OR keeps track of two
-windows. The <em>packaging window</em> tracks how many relay data cells the OR is
-allowed to package (from incoming TCP streams) for transmission back to the OP,
-and the <em>delivery window</em> tracks how many relay data cells it is willing
-to deliver to TCP streams outside the network. Each window is initialized
-(say, to 1000 data cells). When a data cell is packaged or delivered,
-the appropriate window is decremented. When an OR has received enough
-data cells (currently 100), it sends a <em>relay sendme</em> cell towards the OP,
-with streamID zero. When an OR receives a <em>relay sendme</em> cell with
-streamID zero, it increments its packaging window. Either of these cells
-increments the corresponding window by 100. If the packaging window
-reaches 0, the OR stops reading from TCP connections for all streams
-on the corresponding circuit, and sends no more relay data cells until
-receiving a <em>relay sendme</em> cell.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The OP behaves identically, except that it must track a packaging window
-and a delivery window for every OR in the circuit. If a packaging window
-reaches 0, it stops reading from streams destined for that OR.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<b>Stream-level throttling</b>:
-The stream-level congestion control mechanism is similar to the
-circuit-level mechanism. ORs and OPs use <em>relay sendme</em> cells
-to implement end-to-end flow control for individual streams across
-circuits. Each stream begins with a packaging window (currently 500 cells),
-and increments the window by a fixed value (50) upon receiving a <em>relay
-sendme</em> cell. Rather than always returning a <em>relay sendme</em> cell as soon
-as enough cells have arrived, the stream-level congestion control also
-has to check whether data has been successfully flushed onto the TCP
-stream; it sends the <em>relay sendme</em> cell only when the number of bytes pending
-to be flushed is under some threshold (currently 10 cells' worth).
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-These arbitrarily chosen parameters seem to give tolerable throughput
-and delay; see Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:in-the-wild">8</a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc5">
-<a name="sec:rendezvous">
-5</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Rendezvous Points and hidden services</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Rendezvous points are a building block for <em>location-hidden
-services</em> (also known as <em>responder anonymity</em>) in the Tor
-network.  Location-hidden services allow Bob to offer a TCP
-service, such as a webserver, without revealing his IP address.
-This type of anonymity protects against distributed DoS attacks:
-attackers are forced to attack the onion routing network
-because they do not know Bob's IP address.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Our design for location-hidden servers has the following goals.
-<b>Access-control:</b> Bob needs a way to filter incoming requests,
-so an attacker cannot flood Bob simply by making many connections to him.
-<b>Robustness:</b> Bob should be able to maintain a long-term pseudonymous
-identity even in the presence of router failure. Bob's service must
-not be tied to a single OR, and Bob must be able to migrate his service
-across ORs. <b>Smear-resistance:</b>
-A social attacker
-should not be able to "frame" a rendezvous router by
-offering an illegal or disreputable location-hidden service and
-making observers believe the router created that service.
-<b>Application-transparency:</b> Although we require users
-to run special software to access location-hidden servers, we must not
-require them to modify their applications.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We provide location-hiding for Bob by allowing him to advertise
-several onion routers (his <em>introduction points</em>) as contact
-points. He may do this on any robust efficient
-key-value lookup system with authenticated updates, such as a
-distributed hash table (DHT) like CFS&nbsp;[<a href="#cfs:sosp01" name="CITEcfs:sosp01">11</a>].<a href="#tthFtNtAAD" name="tthFrefAAD"><sup>3</sup></a> Alice, the client, chooses an OR as her
-<em>rendezvous point</em>. She connects to one of Bob's introduction
-points, informs him of her rendezvous point, and then waits for him
-to connect to the rendezvous point. This extra level of indirection
-helps Bob's introduction points avoid problems associated with serving
-unpopular files directly (for example, if Bob serves
-material that the introduction point's community finds objectionable,
-or if Bob's service tends to get attacked by network vandals).
-The extra level of indirection also allows Bob to respond to some requests
-and ignore others.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc5.1">
-5.1</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Rendezvous points in Tor</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The following steps are
-performed on behalf of Alice and Bob by their local OPs;
-application integration is described more fully below.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<dl compact="compact">
-
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Bob generates a long-term public key pair to identify his service.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Bob chooses some introduction points, and advertises them on
-      the lookup service, signing the advertisement with his public key.  He
-      can add more later.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Bob builds a circuit to each of his introduction points, and tells
-      them to wait for requests.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Alice learns about Bob's service out of band (perhaps Bob told her,
-      or she found it on a website).  She retrieves the details of Bob's
-      service from the lookup service.  If Alice wants to access Bob's
-      service anonymously, she must connect to the lookup service via Tor.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Alice chooses an OR as the rendezvous point (RP) for her connection to
-      Bob's service. She builds a circuit to the RP, and gives it a
-      randomly chosen "rendezvous cookie" to recognize Bob.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Alice opens an anonymous stream to one of Bob's introduction
-      points, and gives it a message (encrypted with Bob's public key)
-      telling it about herself,
-      her RP and rendezvous cookie, and the
-      start of a DH
-      handshake. The introduction point sends the message to Bob.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>If Bob wants to talk to Alice, he builds a circuit to Alice's
-      RP and sends the rendezvous cookie, the second half of the DH
-      handshake, and a hash of the session
-      key they now share. By the same argument as in
-      Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsubsec:constructing-a-circuit">4.2</a>, Alice knows she
-      shares the key only with Bob.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>The RP connects Alice's circuit to Bob's. Note that RP can't
-      recognize Alice, Bob, or the data they transmit.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>Alice sends a <em>relay begin</em> cell along the circuit. It
-      arrives at Bob's OP, which connects to Bob's
-      webserver.</dd>
- <dt><b></b></dt>
-	<dd><li>An anonymous stream has been established, and Alice and Bob
-      communicate as normal.
-</dd>
-</dl>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-When establishing an introduction point, Bob provides the onion router
-with the public key identifying his service.  Bob signs his
-messages, so others cannot usurp his introduction point
-in the future. He uses the same public key to establish the other
-introduction points for his service, and periodically refreshes his
-entry in the lookup service.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The message that Alice gives
-the introduction point includes a hash of Bob's public key and an optional initial authorization token (the
-introduction point can do prescreening, for example to block replays). Her
-message to Bob may include an end-to-end authorization token so Bob
-can choose whether to respond.
-The authorization tokens can be used to provide selective access:
-important users can get uninterrupted access.
-During normal situations, Bob's service might simply be offered
-directly from mirrors, while Bob gives out tokens to high-priority users. If
-the mirrors are knocked down,
-those users can switch to accessing Bob's service via
-the Tor rendezvous system.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Bob's introduction points are themselves subject to DoS &mdash; he must
-open many introduction points or risk such an attack.
-He can provide selected users with a current list or future schedule of
-unadvertised introduction points;
-this is most practical
-if there is a stable and large group of introduction points
-available. Bob could also give secret public keys
-for consulting the lookup service. All of these approaches
-limit exposure even when
-some selected users collude in the DoS.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc5.2">
-5.2</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Integration with user applications</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Bob configures his onion proxy to know the local IP address and port of his
-service, a strategy for authorizing clients, and his public key. The onion
-proxy anonymously publishes a signed statement of Bob's
-public key, an expiration time, and
-the current introduction points for his service onto the lookup service,
-indexed
-by the hash of his public key.  Bob's webserver is unmodified,
-and doesn't even know that it's hidden behind the Tor network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Alice's applications also work unchanged &mdash; her client interface
-remains a SOCKS proxy.  We encode all of the necessary information
-into the fully qualified domain name (FQDN) Alice uses when establishing her
-connection. Location-hidden services use a virtual top level domain
-called <tt>.onion</tt>: thus hostnames take the form <tt>x.y.onion</tt> where
-<tt>x</tt> is the authorization cookie and <tt>y</tt> encodes the hash of
-the public key. Alice's onion proxy
-examines addresses; if they're destined for a hidden server, it decodes
-the key and starts the rendezvous as described above.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc5.3">
-5.3</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Previous rendezvous work</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Rendezvous points in low-latency anonymity systems were first
-described for use in ISDN telephony&nbsp;[<a href="#jerichow-jsac98" name="CITEjerichow-jsac98">30</a>,<a href="#isdn-mixes" name="CITEisdn-mixes">38</a>].
-Later low-latency designs used rendezvous points for hiding location
-of mobile phones and low-power location
-trackers&nbsp;[<a href="#federrath-ih96" name="CITEfederrath-ih96">23</a>,<a href="#reed-protocols97" name="CITEreed-protocols97">40</a>].  Rendezvous for
-anonymizing low-latency
-Internet connections was suggested in early Onion Routing
-work&nbsp;[<a href="#or-ih96" name="CITEor-ih96">27</a>], but the first published design was by Ian
-Goldberg&nbsp;[<a href="#ian-thesis" name="CITEian-thesis">26</a>]. His design differs from
-ours in three ways. First, Goldberg suggests that Alice should manually
-hunt down a current location of the service via Gnutella; our approach
-makes lookup transparent to the user, as well as faster and more robust.
-Second, in Tor the client and server negotiate session keys
-with Diffie-Hellman, so plaintext is not exposed even at the rendezvous
-point. Third,
-our design minimizes the exposure from running the
-service, to encourage volunteers to offer introduction and rendezvous
-services. Tor's introduction points do not output any bytes to the
-clients; the rendezvous points don't know the client or the server,
-and can't read the data being transmitted. The indirection scheme is
-also designed to include authentication/authorization &mdash; if Alice doesn't
-include the right cookie with her request for service, Bob need not even
-acknowledge his existence.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc6">
-<a name="sec:other-design">
-6</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Other design decisions</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc6.1">
-<a name="subsec:dos">
-6.1</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Denial of service</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Providing Tor as a public service creates many opportunities for
-denial-of-service attacks against the network.  While
-flow control and rate limiting (discussed in
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:congestion">4.6</a>) prevent users from consuming more
-bandwidth than routers are willing to provide, opportunities remain for
-users to
-consume more network resources than their fair share, or to render the
-network unusable for others.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-First of all, there are several CPU-consuming denial-of-service
-attacks wherein an attacker can force an OR to perform expensive
-cryptographic operations.  For example, an attacker can 
-fake the start of a TLS handshake, forcing the OR to carry out its
-(comparatively expensive) half of the handshake at no real computational
-cost to the attacker.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We have not yet implemented any defenses for these attacks, but several
-approaches are possible. First, ORs can
-require clients to solve a puzzle&nbsp;[<a href="#puzzles-tls" name="CITEpuzzles-tls">16</a>] while beginning new
-TLS handshakes or accepting <em>create</em> cells.  So long as these
-tokens are easy to verify and computationally expensive to produce, this
-approach limits the attack multiplier.  Additionally, ORs can limit
-the rate at which they accept <em>create</em> cells and TLS connections,
-so that
-the computational work of processing them does not drown out the
-symmetric cryptography operations that keep cells
-flowing.  This rate limiting could, however, allow an attacker
-to slow down other users when they build new circuits.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Adversaries can also attack the Tor network's hosts and network
-links. Disrupting a single circuit or link breaks all streams passing
-along that part of the circuit. Users similarly lose service
-when a router crashes or its operator restarts it. The current
-Tor design treats such attacks as intermittent network failures, and
-depends on users and applications to respond or recover as appropriate. A
-future design could use an end-to-end TCP-like acknowledgment protocol,
-so no streams are lost unless the entry or exit point is
-disrupted. This solution would require more buffering at the network
-edges, however, and the performance and anonymity implications from this
-extra complexity still require investigation.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc6.2">
-<a name="subsec:exitpolicies">
-6.2</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Exit policies and abuse</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Exit abuse is a serious barrier to wide-scale Tor deployment. Anonymity
-presents would-be vandals and abusers with an opportunity to hide
-the origins of their activities. Attackers can harm the Tor network by
-implicating exit servers for their abuse. Also, applications that commonly
-use IP-based authentication (such as institutional mail or webservers)
-can be fooled by the fact that anonymous connections appear to originate
-at the exit OR.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We stress that Tor does not enable any new class of abuse. Spammers
-and other attackers already have access to thousands of misconfigured
-systems worldwide, and the Tor network is far from the easiest way
-to launch attacks.
-But because the
-onion routers can be mistaken for the originators of the abuse,
-and the volunteers who run them may not want to deal with the hassle of
-explaining anonymity networks to irate administrators, we must block or limit
-abuse through the Tor network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-To mitigate abuse issues, each onion router's <em>exit policy</em>
-describes to which external addresses and ports the router will
-connect. On one end of the spectrum are <em>open exit</em>
-nodes that will connect anywhere. On the other end are <em>middleman</em>
-nodes that only relay traffic to other Tor nodes, and <em>private exit</em>
-nodes that only connect to a local host or network.  A private
-exit can allow a client to connect to a given host or
-network more securely &mdash; an external adversary cannot eavesdrop traffic
-between the private exit and the final destination, and so is less sure of
-Alice's destination and activities. Most onion routers in the current
-network function as
-<em>restricted exits</em> that permit connections to the world at large,
-but prevent access to certain abuse-prone addresses and services such
-as SMTP.
-The OR might also be able to authenticate clients to
-prevent exit abuse without harming anonymity&nbsp;[<a href="#or-discex00" name="CITEor-discex00">48</a>].
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Many administrators use port restrictions to support only a
-limited set of services, such as HTTP, SSH, or AIM.
-This is not a complete solution, of course, since abuse opportunities for these
-protocols are still well known.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-We have not yet encountered any abuse in the deployed network, but if
-we do we should consider using proxies to clean traffic for certain
-protocols as it leaves the network.  For example, much abusive HTTP
-behavior (such as exploiting buffer overflows or well-known script
-vulnerabilities) can be detected in a straightforward manner.
-Similarly, one could run automatic spam filtering software (such as
-SpamAssassin) on email exiting the OR network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-ORs may also rewrite exiting traffic to append
-headers or other information indicating that the traffic has passed
-through an anonymity service.  This approach is commonly used
-by email-only anonymity systems.  ORs can also
-run on servers with hostnames like <tt>anonymous</tt> to further
-alert abuse targets to the nature of the anonymous traffic.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-A mixture of open and restricted exit nodes allows the most
-flexibility for volunteers running servers. But while having many
-middleman nodes provides a large and robust network,
-having only a few exit nodes reduces the number of points
-an adversary needs to monitor for traffic analysis, and places a
-greater burden on the exit nodes.  This tension can be seen in the
-Java Anon Proxy
-cascade model, wherein only one node in each cascade needs to handle
-abuse complaints &mdash; but an adversary only needs to observe the entry
-and exit of a cascade to perform traffic analysis on all that
-cascade's users. The hydra model (many entries, few exits) presents a
-different compromise: only a few exit nodes are needed, but an
-adversary needs to work harder to watch all the clients; see
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:conclusion">10</a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Finally, we note that exit abuse must not be dismissed as a peripheral
-issue: when a system's public image suffers, it can reduce the number
-and diversity of that system's users, and thereby reduce the anonymity
-of the system itself.  Like usability, public perception is a
-security parameter.  Sadly, preventing abuse of open exit nodes is an
-unsolved problem, and will probably remain an arms race for the
-foreseeable future.  The abuse problems faced by Princeton's CoDeeN
-project&nbsp;[<a href="#darkside" name="CITEdarkside">37</a>] give us a glimpse of likely issues.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-     <h3><a name="tth_sEc6.3">
-<a name="subsec:dirservers">
-6.3</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Directory Servers</h3>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-First-generation Onion Routing designs&nbsp;[<a href="#freedom2-arch" name="CITEfreedom2-arch">8</a>,<a href="#or-jsac98" name="CITEor-jsac98">41</a>] used
-in-band network status updates: each router flooded a signed statement
-to its neighbors, which propagated it onward. But anonymizing networks
-have different security goals than typical link-state routing protocols.
-For example, delays (accidental or intentional)
-that can cause different parts of the network to have different views
-of link-state and topology are not only inconvenient: they give
-attackers an opportunity to exploit differences in client knowledge.
-We also worry about attacks to deceive a
-client about the router membership list, topology, or current network
-state. Such <em>partitioning attacks</em> on client knowledge help an
-adversary to efficiently deploy resources
-against a target&nbsp;[<a href="#minion-design" name="CITEminion-design">15</a>].
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Tor uses a small group of redundant, well-known onion routers to
-track changes in network topology and node state, including keys and
-exit policies.  Each such <em>directory server</em> acts as an HTTP
-server, so clients can fetch current network state
-and router lists, and so other ORs can upload
-state information.  Onion routers periodically publish signed
-statements of their state to each directory server. The directory servers
-combine this information with their own views of network liveness,
-and generate a signed description (a <em>directory</em>) of the entire
-network state. Client software is
-pre-loaded with a list of the directory servers and their keys,
-to bootstrap each client's view of the network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-When a directory server receives a signed statement for an OR, it
-checks whether the OR's identity key is recognized. Directory
-servers do not advertise unrecognized ORs &mdash; if they did,
-an adversary could take over the network by creating many
-servers&nbsp;[<a href="#sybil" name="CITEsybil">22</a>]. Instead, new nodes must be approved by the
-directory
-server administrator before they are included. Mechanisms for automated
-node approval are an area of active research, and are discussed more
-in Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:maintaining-anonymity">9</a>.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Of course, a variety of attacks remain. An adversary who controls
-a directory server can track clients by providing them different
-information &mdash; perhaps by listing only nodes under its control, or by
-informing only certain clients about a given node. Even an external
-adversary can exploit differences in client knowledge: clients who use
-a node listed on one directory server but not the others are vulnerable.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Thus these directory servers must be synchronized and redundant, so
-that they can agree on a common directory.  Clients should only trust
-this directory if it is signed by a threshold of the directory
-servers.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-The directory servers in Tor are modeled after those in
-Mixminion&nbsp;[<a href="#minion-design" name="CITEminion-design">15</a>], but our situation is easier. First,
-we make the
-simplifying assumption that all participants agree on the set of
-directory servers. Second, while Mixminion needs to predict node
-behavior, Tor only needs a threshold consensus of the current
-state of the network. Third, we assume that we can fall back to the
-human administrators to discover and resolve problems when a consensus
-directory cannot be reached. Since there are relatively few directory
-servers (currently 3, but we expect as many as 9 as the network scales),
-we can afford operations like broadcast to simplify the consensus-building
-protocol.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-To avoid attacks where a router connects to all the directory servers
-but refuses to relay traffic from other routers, the directory servers
-must also build circuits and use them to anonymously test router
-reliability&nbsp;[<a href="#mix-acc" name="CITEmix-acc">18</a>]. Unfortunately, this defense is not yet
-designed or
-implemented.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Using directory servers is simpler and more flexible than flooding.
-Flooding is expensive, and complicates the analysis when we
-start experimenting with non-clique network topologies. Signed
-directories can be cached by other
-onion routers,
-so directory servers are not a performance
-bottleneck when we have many users, and do not aid traffic analysis by
-forcing clients to announce their existence to any
-central point.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc7">
-<a name="sec:attacks">
-7</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Attacks and Defenses</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Below we summarize a variety of attacks, and discuss how well our
-design withstands them.<br />
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<font size="+1"><b>Passive attacks</b></font><br />
-<em>Observing user traffic patterns.</em> Observing a user's connection
-will not reveal her destination or data, but it will
-reveal traffic patterns (both sent and received). Profiling via user
-connection patterns requires further processing, because multiple
-application streams may be operating simultaneously or in series over
-a single circuit.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Observing user content.</em> While content at the user end is encrypted,
-connections to responders may not be (indeed, the responding website
-itself may be hostile). While filtering content is not a primary goal
-of Onion Routing, Tor can directly use Privoxy and related
-filtering services to anonymize application data streams.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Option distinguishability.</em> We allow clients to choose
-configuration options. For example, clients concerned about request
-linkability should rotate circuits more often than those concerned
-about traceability. Allowing choice may attract users with different 
-needs; but clients who are
-in the minority may lose more anonymity by appearing distinct than they
-gain by optimizing their behavior&nbsp;[<a href="#econymics" name="CITEeconymics">1</a>].
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>End-to-end timing correlation.</em>  Tor only minimally hides
-such correlations. An attacker watching patterns of
-traffic at the initiator and the responder will be
-able to confirm the correspondence with high probability. The
-greatest protection currently available against such confirmation is to hide
-the connection between the onion proxy and the first Tor node,
-by running the OP on the Tor node or behind a firewall. This approach
-requires an observer to separate traffic originating at the onion
-router from traffic passing through it: a global observer can do this,
-but it might be beyond a limited observer's capabilities.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>End-to-end size correlation.</em> Simple packet counting
-will also be effective in confirming
-endpoints of a stream. However, even without padding, we may have some
-limited protection: the leaky pipe topology means different numbers
-of packets may enter one end of a circuit than exit at the other.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Website fingerprinting.</em> All the effective passive
-attacks above are traffic confirmation attacks,
-which puts them outside our design goals. There is also
-a passive traffic analysis attack that is potentially effective.
-Rather than searching exit connections for timing and volume
-correlations, the adversary may build up a database of
-"fingerprints" containing file sizes and access patterns for
-targeted websites. He can later confirm a user's connection to a given
-site simply by consulting the database. This attack has
-been shown to be effective against SafeWeb&nbsp;[<a href="#hintz-pet02" name="CITEhintz-pet02">29</a>].
-It may be less effective against Tor, since
-streams are multiplexed within the same circuit, and
-fingerprinting will be limited to
-the granularity of cells (currently 512 bytes). Additional
-defenses could include
-larger cell sizes, padding schemes to group websites
-into large sets, and link
-padding or long-range dummies.<a href="#tthFtNtAAE" name="tthFrefAAE"><sup>4</sup></a><br />
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<font size="+1"><b>Active attacks</b></font><br />
-<em>Compromise keys.</em> An attacker who learns the TLS session key can
-see control cells and encrypted relay cells on every circuit on that
-connection; learning a circuit
-session key lets him unwrap one layer of the encryption. An attacker
-who learns an OR's TLS private key can impersonate that OR for the TLS
-key's lifetime, but he must
-also learn the onion key to decrypt <em>create</em> cells (and because of
-perfect forward secrecy, he cannot hijack already established circuits
-without also compromising their session keys). Periodic key rotation
-limits the window of opportunity for these attacks. On the other hand,
-an attacker who learns a node's identity key can replace that node
-indefinitely by sending new forged descriptors to the directory servers.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Iterated compromise.</em> A roving adversary who can
-compromise ORs (by system intrusion, legal coercion, or extralegal
-coercion) could march down the circuit compromising the
-nodes until he reaches the end.  Unless the adversary can complete
-this attack within the lifetime of the circuit, however, the ORs
-will have discarded the necessary information before the attack can
-be completed.  (Thanks to the perfect forward secrecy of session
-keys, the attacker cannot force nodes to decrypt recorded
-traffic once the circuits have been closed.)  Additionally, building
-circuits that cross jurisdictions can make legal coercion
-harder &mdash; this phenomenon is commonly called "jurisdictional
-arbitrage." The Java Anon Proxy project recently experienced the
-need for this approach, when
-a German court forced them to add a backdoor to
-their nodes&nbsp;[<a href="#jap-backdoor" name="CITEjap-backdoor">51</a>].
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Run a recipient.</em> An adversary running a webserver
-trivially learns the timing patterns of users connecting to it, and
-can introduce arbitrary patterns in its responses.
-End-to-end attacks become easier: if the adversary can induce
-users to connect to his webserver (perhaps by advertising
-content targeted to those users), he now holds one end of their
-connection.  There is also a danger that application
-protocols and associated programs can be induced to reveal information
-about the initiator. Tor depends on Privoxy and similar protocol cleaners
-to solve this latter problem.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Run an onion proxy.</em> It is expected that end users will
-nearly always run their own local onion proxy. However, in some
-settings, it may be necessary for the proxy to run
-remotely &mdash; typically, in institutions that want
-to monitor the activity of those connecting to the proxy.
-Compromising an onion proxy compromises all future connections
-through it.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>DoS non-observed nodes.</em> An observer who can only watch some
-of the Tor network can increase the value of this traffic
-by attacking non-observed nodes to shut them down, reduce
-their reliability, or persuade users that they are not trustworthy.
-The best defense here is robustness.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Run a hostile OR.</em>  In addition to being a local observer,
-an isolated hostile node can create circuits through itself, or alter
-traffic patterns to affect traffic at other nodes. Nonetheless, a hostile
-node must be immediately adjacent to both endpoints to compromise the
-anonymity of a circuit. If an adversary can
-run multiple ORs, and can persuade the directory servers
-that those ORs are trustworthy and independent, then occasionally
-some user will choose one of those ORs for the start and another
-as the end of a circuit. If an adversary
-controls m &gt; 1 of N nodes, he can correlate at most
-([m/N])<sup>2</sup> of the traffic &mdash; although an
-adversary
-could still attract a disproportionately large amount of traffic
-by running an OR with a permissive exit policy, or by
-degrading the reliability of other routers.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Introduce timing into messages.</em> This is simply a stronger
-version of passive timing attacks already discussed earlier.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Tagging attacks.</em> A hostile node could "tag" a
-cell by altering it. If the
-stream were, for example, an unencrypted request to a Web site,
-the garbled content coming out at the appropriate time would confirm
-the association. However, integrity checks on cells prevent
-this attack.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Replace contents of unauthenticated protocols.</em>  When
-relaying an unauthenticated protocol like HTTP, a hostile exit node
-can impersonate the target server. Clients
-should prefer protocols with end-to-end authentication.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Replay attacks.</em> Some anonymity protocols are vulnerable
-to replay attacks.  Tor is not; replaying one side of a handshake
-will result in a different negotiated session key, and so the rest
-of the recorded session can't be used.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Smear attacks.</em> An attacker could use the Tor network for
-socially disapproved acts, to bring the
-network into disrepute and get its operators to shut it down.
-Exit policies reduce the possibilities for abuse, but
-ultimately the network requires volunteers who can tolerate
-some political heat.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Distribute hostile code.</em> An attacker could trick users
-into running subverted Tor software that did not, in fact, anonymize
-their connections &mdash; or worse, could trick ORs into running weakened
-software that provided users with less anonymity.  We address this
-problem (but do not solve it completely) by signing all Tor releases
-with an official public key, and including an entry in the directory
-that lists which versions are currently believed to be secure.  To
-prevent an attacker from subverting the official release itself
-(through threats, bribery, or insider attacks), we provide all
-releases in source code form, encourage source audits, and
-frequently warn our users never to trust any software (even from
-us) that comes without source.<br />
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<font size="+1"><b>Directory attacks</b></font><br />
-<em>Destroy directory servers.</em>  If a few directory
-servers disappear, the others still decide on a valid
-directory.  So long as any directory servers remain in operation,
-they will still broadcast their views of the network and generate a
-consensus directory.  (If more than half are destroyed, this
-directory will not, however, have enough signatures for clients to
-use it automatically; human intervention will be necessary for
-clients to decide whether to trust the resulting directory.)
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Subvert a directory server.</em>  By taking over a directory server,
-an attacker can partially influence the final directory.  Since ORs
-are included or excluded by majority vote, the corrupt directory can
-at worst cast a tie-breaking vote to decide whether to include
-marginal ORs.  It remains to be seen how often such marginal cases
-occur in practice.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Subvert a majority of directory servers.</em> An adversary who controls
-more than half the directory servers can include as many compromised
-ORs in the final directory as he wishes. We must ensure that directory
-server operators are independent and attack-resistant.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Encourage directory server dissent.</em>  The directory
-agreement protocol assumes that directory server operators agree on
-the set of directory servers.  An adversary who can persuade some
-of the directory server operators to distrust one another could
-split the quorum into mutually hostile camps, thus partitioning
-users based on which directory they use.  Tor does not address
-this attack.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Trick the directory servers into listing a hostile OR.</em>
-Our threat model explicitly assumes directory server operators will
-be able to filter out most hostile ORs.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Convince the directories that a malfunctioning OR is
-working.</em>  In the current Tor implementation, directory servers
-assume that an OR is running correctly if they can start a TLS
-connection to it.  A hostile OR could easily subvert this test by
-accepting TLS connections from ORs but ignoring all cells. Directory
-servers must actively test ORs by building circuits and streams as
-appropriate.  The tradeoffs of a similar approach are discussed
-in&nbsp;[<a href="#mix-acc" name="CITEmix-acc">18</a>].<br />
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<font size="+1"><b>Attacks against rendezvous points</b></font><br />
-<em>Make many introduction requests.</em>  An attacker could
-try to deny Bob service by flooding his introduction points with
-requests.  Because the introduction points can block requests that
-lack authorization tokens, however, Bob can restrict the volume of
-requests he receives, or require a certain amount of computation for
-every request he receives.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Attack an introduction point.</em> An attacker could
-disrupt a location-hidden service by disabling its introduction
-points.  But because a service's identity is attached to its public
-key, the service can simply re-advertise
-itself at a different introduction point. Advertisements can also be
-done secretly so that only high-priority clients know the address of
-Bob's introduction points or so that different clients know of different
-introduction points. This forces the attacker to disable all possible
-introduction points.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Compromise an introduction point.</em> An attacker who controls
-Bob's introduction point can flood Bob with
-introduction requests, or prevent valid introduction requests from
-reaching him. Bob can notice a flood, and close the circuit.  To notice
-blocking of valid requests, however, he should periodically test the
-introduction point by sending rendezvous requests and making
-sure he receives them.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Compromise a rendezvous point.</em>  A rendezvous
-point is no more sensitive than any other OR on
-a circuit, since all data passing through the rendezvous is encrypted
-with a session key shared by Alice and Bob.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc8">
-<a name="sec:in-the-wild">
-8</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Early experiences: Tor in the Wild</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-As of mid-May 2004, the Tor network consists of 32 nodes
-(24 in the US, 8 in Europe), and more are joining each week as the code
-matures. (For comparison, the current remailer network
-has about 40 nodes.) Each node has at least a 768Kb/768Kb connection, and
-many have 10Mb. The number of users varies (and of course, it's hard to
-tell for sure), but we sometimes have several hundred users &mdash; administrators at
-several companies have begun sending their entire departments' web
-traffic through Tor, to block other divisions of
-their company from reading their traffic. Tor users have reported using
-the network for web browsing, FTP, IRC, AIM, Kazaa, SSH, and
-recipient-anonymous email via rendezvous points. One user has anonymously
-set up a Wiki as a hidden service, where other users anonymously publish
-the addresses of their hidden services.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Each Tor node currently processes roughly 800,000 relay
-cells (a bit under half a gigabyte) per week. On average, about 80%
-of each 498-byte payload is full for cells going back to the client,
-whereas about 40% is full for cells coming from the client. (The difference
-arises because most of the network's traffic is web browsing.) Interactive
-traffic like SSH brings down the average a lot &mdash; once we have more
-experience, and assuming we can resolve the anonymity issues, we may
-partition traffic into two relay cell sizes: one to handle
-bulk traffic and one for interactive traffic.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Based in part on our restrictive default exit policy (we
-reject SMTP requests) and our low profile, we have had no abuse
-issues since the network was deployed in October
-2003. Our slow growth rate gives us time to add features,
-resolve bugs, and get a feel for what users actually want from an
-anonymity system.  Even though having more users would bolster our
-anonymity sets, we are not eager to attract the Kazaa or warez
-communities &mdash; we feel that we must build a reputation for privacy, human
-rights, research, and other socially laudable activities.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-As for performance, profiling shows that Tor spends almost
-all its CPU time in AES, which is fast.  Current latency is attributable
-to two factors. First, network latency is critical: we are
-intentionally bouncing traffic around the world several times. Second,
-our end-to-end congestion control algorithm focuses on protecting
-volunteer servers from accidental DoS rather than on optimizing
-performance. To quantify these effects, we did some informal tests using a network of 4
-nodes on the same machine (a heavily loaded 1GHz Athlon). We downloaded a 60
-megabyte file from <tt>debian.org</tt> every 30 minutes for 54 hours (108 sample
-points). It arrived in about 300 seconds on average, compared to 210s for a
-direct download. We ran a similar test on the production Tor network,
-fetching the front page of <tt>cnn.com</tt> (55 kilobytes):
-while a direct
-download consistently took about 0.3s, the performance through Tor varied.
-Some downloads were as fast as 0.4s, with a median at 2.8s, and
-90% finishing within 5.3s.  It seems that as the network expands, the chance
-of building a slow circuit (one that includes a slow or heavily loaded node
-or link) is increasing.  On the other hand, as our users remain satisfied
-with this increased latency, we can address our performance incrementally as we
-proceed with development. 
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Although Tor's clique topology and full-visibility directories present
-scaling problems, we still expect the network to support a few hundred
-nodes and maybe 10,000 users before we're forced to become
-more distributed. With luck, the experience we gain running the current
-topology will help us choose among alternatives when the time comes.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc9">
-<a name="sec:maintaining-anonymity">
-9</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Open Questions in Low-latency Anonymity</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-In addition to the non-goals in
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:non-goals">3</a>, many questions must be solved
-before we can be confident of Tor's security.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Many of these open issues are questions of balance. For example,
-how often should users rotate to fresh circuits? Frequent rotation
-is inefficient, expensive, and may lead to intersection attacks and
-predecessor attacks&nbsp;[<a href="#wright03" name="CITEwright03">54</a>], but infrequent rotation makes the
-user's traffic linkable. Besides opening fresh circuits, clients can
-also exit from the middle of the circuit,
-or truncate and re-extend the circuit. More analysis is
-needed to determine the proper tradeoff.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-How should we choose path lengths? If Alice always uses two hops,
-then both ORs can be certain that by colluding they will learn about
-Alice and Bob. In our current approach, Alice always chooses at least
-three nodes unrelated to herself and her destination.
-Should Alice choose a random path length (e.g.&nbsp;from a geometric
-distribution) to foil an attacker who
-uses timing to learn that he is the fifth hop and thus concludes that
-both Alice and the responder are running ORs?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Throughout this paper, we have assumed that end-to-end traffic
-confirmation will immediately and automatically defeat a low-latency
-anonymity system. Even high-latency anonymity systems can be
-vulnerable to end-to-end traffic confirmation, if the traffic volumes
-are high enough, and if users' habits are sufficiently
-distinct&nbsp;[<a href="#statistical-disclosure" name="CITEstatistical-disclosure">14</a>,<a href="#limits-open" name="CITElimits-open">31</a>]. Can anything be
-done to
-make low-latency systems resist these attacks as well as high-latency
-systems? Tor already makes some effort to conceal the starts and ends of
-streams by wrapping long-range control commands in identical-looking
-relay cells. Link padding could frustrate passive observers who count
-packets; long-range padding could work against observers who own the
-first hop in a circuit. But more research remains to find an efficient
-and practical approach. Volunteers prefer not to run constant-bandwidth
-padding; but no convincing traffic shaping approach has been
-specified. Recent work on long-range padding&nbsp;[<a href="#defensive-dropping" name="CITEdefensive-dropping">33</a>]
-shows promise. One could also try to reduce correlation in packet timing
-by batching and re-ordering packets, but it is unclear whether this could
-improve anonymity without introducing so much latency as to render the
-network unusable.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-A cascade topology may better defend against traffic confirmation by
-aggregating users, and making padding and
-mixing more affordable.  Does the hydra topology (many input nodes,
-few output nodes) work better against some adversaries? Are we going
-to get a hydra anyway because most nodes will be middleman nodes?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Common wisdom suggests that Alice should run her own OR for best
-anonymity, because traffic coming from her node could plausibly have
-come from elsewhere. How much mixing does this approach need?  Is it
-immediately beneficial because of real-world adversaries that can't
-observe Alice's router, but can run routers of their own?
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-To scale to many users, and to prevent an attacker from observing the
-whole network, it may be necessary
-to support far more servers than Tor currently anticipates.
-This introduces several issues.  First, if approval by a central set
-of directory servers is no longer feasible, what mechanism should be used
-to prevent adversaries from signing up many colluding servers? Second,
-if clients can no longer have a complete picture of the network,
-how can they perform discovery while preventing attackers from
-manipulating or exploiting gaps in their knowledge?  Third, if there
-are too many servers for every server to constantly communicate with
-every other, which non-clique topology should the network use?
-(Restricted-route topologies promise comparable anonymity with better
-scalability&nbsp;[<a href="#danezis-pets03" name="CITEdanezis-pets03">13</a>], but whatever topology we choose, we
-need some way to keep attackers from manipulating their position within
-it&nbsp;[<a href="#casc-rep" name="CITEcasc-rep">21</a>].) Fourth, if no central authority is tracking
-server reliability, how do we stop unreliable servers from making
-the network unusable?  Fifth, do clients receive so much anonymity
-from running their own ORs that we should expect them all to do
-so&nbsp;[<a href="#econymics" name="CITEeconymics">1</a>], or do we need another incentive structure to
-motivate them?  Tarzan and MorphMix present possible solutions.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-When a Tor node goes down, all its circuits (and thus streams) must break.
-Will users abandon the system because of this brittleness? How well
-does the method in Section&nbsp;<a href="#subsec:dos">6.1</a> allow streams to survive
-node failure? If affected users rebuild circuits immediately, how much
-anonymity is lost? It seems the problem is even worse in a peer-to-peer
-environment &mdash; such systems don't yet provide an incentive for peers to
-stay connected when they're done retrieving content, so we would expect
-a higher churn rate.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
- <h2><a name="tth_sEc10">
-<a name="sec:conclusion">
-10</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;Future Directions</h2>
-</a>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-Tor brings together many innovations into a unified deployable system. The
-next immediate steps include:
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Scalability:</em> Tor's emphasis on deployability and design simplicity
-has led us to adopt a clique topology, semi-centralized
-directories, and a full-network-visibility model for client
-knowledge. These properties will not scale past a few hundred servers.
-Section&nbsp;<a href="#sec:maintaining-anonymity">9</a> describes some promising
-approaches, but more deployment experience will be helpful in learning
-the relative importance of these bottlenecks.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Bandwidth classes:</em> This paper assumes that all ORs have
-good bandwidth and latency. We should instead adopt the MorphMix model,
-where nodes advertise their bandwidth level (DSL, T1, T3), and
-Alice avoids bottlenecks by choosing nodes that match or
-exceed her bandwidth. In this way DSL users can usefully join the Tor
-network.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Incentives:</em> Volunteers who run nodes are rewarded with publicity
-and possibly better anonymity&nbsp;[<a href="#econymics" name="CITEeconymics">1</a>]. More nodes means increased
-scalability, and more users can mean more anonymity. We need to continue
-examining the incentive structures for participating in Tor. Further,
-we need to explore more approaches to limiting abuse, and understand
-why most people don't bother using privacy systems.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Cover traffic:</em> Currently Tor omits cover traffic &mdash; its costs
-in performance and bandwidth are clear but its security benefits are
-not well understood. We must pursue more research on link-level cover
-traffic and long-range cover traffic to determine whether some simple padding
-method offers provable protection against our chosen adversary.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Caching at exit nodes:</em> Perhaps each exit node should run a
-caching web proxy&nbsp;[<a href="#shsm03" name="CITEshsm03">47</a>], to improve anonymity for cached pages
-(Alice's request never
-leaves the Tor network), to improve speed, and to reduce bandwidth cost.
-On the other hand, forward security is weakened because caches
-constitute a record of retrieved files.  We must find the right
-balance between usability and security.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Better directory distribution:</em>
-Clients currently download a description of
-the entire network every 15 minutes. As the state grows larger
-and clients more numerous, we may need a solution in which
-clients receive incremental updates to directory state.
-More generally, we must find more
-scalable yet practical ways to distribute up-to-date snapshots of
-network status without introducing new attacks.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Further specification review:</em> Our public
-byte-level specification&nbsp;[<a href="#tor-spec" name="CITEtor-spec">20</a>] needs
-external review.  We hope that as Tor
-is deployed, more people will examine its
-specification.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Multisystem interoperability:</em> We are currently working with the
-designer of MorphMix to unify the specification and implementation of
-the common elements of our two systems. So far, this seems
-to be relatively straightforward.  Interoperability will allow testing
-and direct comparison of the two designs for trust and scalability.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<em>Wider-scale deployment:</em> The original goal of Tor was to
-gain experience in deploying an anonymizing overlay network, and
-learn from having actual users.  We are now at a point in design
-and development where we can start deploying a wider network.  Once
-we have many actual users, we will doubtlessly be better
-able to evaluate some of our design decisions, including our
-robustness/latency tradeoffs, our performance tradeoffs (including
-cell size), our abuse-prevention mechanisms, and
-our overall usability.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<h2>Acknowledgments</h2>
- We thank Peter Palfrader, Geoff Goodell, Adam Shostack, Joseph Sokol-Margolis,
-   John Bashinski, and Zack Brown
-   for editing and comments;
- Matej Pfajfar, Andrei Serjantov, Marc Rennhard for design discussions;
- Bram Cohen for congestion control discussions;
- Adam Back for suggesting telescoping circuits; and
- Cathy Meadows for formal analysis of the <em>extend</em> protocol.
- This work has been supported by ONR and DARPA.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<h2>References</h2>
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- Practical anonymity for the masses with morphmix.
- In A.&nbsp;Juels, editor, <em>Financial Cryptography</em>. Springer-Verlag,
-  LNCS (forthcoming), 2004.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEanonnet" name="anonnet">[44]</a></dt><dd>
-M.&nbsp;Rennhard, S.&nbsp;Rafaeli, L.&nbsp;Mathy, B.&nbsp;Plattner, and D.&nbsp;Hutchison.
- Analysis of an Anonymity Network for Web Browsing.
- In <em>IEEE 7th Intl. Workshop on Enterprise Security (WET ICE
-  2002)</em>, Pittsburgh, USA, June 2002.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITESS03" name="SS03">[45]</a></dt><dd>
-A.&nbsp;Serjantov and P.&nbsp;Sewell.
- Passive attack analysis for connection-based anonymity systems.
- In <em>Computer Security - ESORICS 2003</em>. Springer-Verlag, LNCS
-  2808, October 2003.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEp5" name="p5">[46]</a></dt><dd>
-R.&nbsp;Sherwood, B.&nbsp;Bhattacharjee, and A.&nbsp;Srinivasan.
- p<sup>5</sup>: A protocol for scalable anonymous communication.
- In <em>IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy</em>, pages 58-70. IEEE
-  CS, 2002.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEshsm03" name="shsm03">[47]</a></dt><dd>
-A.&nbsp;Shubina and S.&nbsp;Smith.
- Using caching for browsing anonymity.
- <em>ACM SIGEcom Exchanges</em>, 4(2), Sept 2003.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEor-discex00" name="or-discex00">[48]</a></dt><dd>
-P.&nbsp;Syverson, M.&nbsp;Reed, and D.&nbsp;Goldschlag.
- Onion Routing access configurations.
- In <em>DARPA Information Survivability Conference and Exposition
-  (DISCEX 2000)</em>, volume&nbsp;1, pages 34-40. IEEE CS Press, 2000.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEor-pet00" name="or-pet00">[49]</a></dt><dd>
-P.&nbsp;Syverson, G.&nbsp;Tsudik, M.&nbsp;Reed, and C.&nbsp;Landwehr.
- Towards an Analysis of Onion Routing Security.
- In H.&nbsp;Federrath, editor, <em>Designing Privacy Enhancing
-  Technologies: Workshop on Design Issue in Anonymity and Unobservability</em>,
-  pages 96-114. Springer-Verlag, LNCS 2009, July 2000.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEtannenbaum96" name="tannenbaum96">[50]</a></dt><dd>
-A.&nbsp;Tannenbaum.
- Computer networks, 1996.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEjap-backdoor" name="jap-backdoor">[51]</a></dt><dd>
-The AN.ON Project.
- German police proceeds against anonymity service.
- Press release, September 2003.
-
-  <tt>&lt;http://www.datenschutzzentrum.de/material/themen/presse/anon-bka_e.htm&#62;.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</tt></dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEtangler" name="tangler">[52]</a></dt><dd>
-M.&nbsp;Waldman and D.&nbsp;Mazi&#232;res.
- Tangler: A censorship-resistant publishing system based on document
-  entanglements.
- In <em>8<sup>th</sup> ACM Conference on Computer and Communications
-  Security (CCS-8)</em>, pages 86-135. ACM Press, 2001.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEpublius" name="publius">[53]</a></dt><dd>
-M.&nbsp;Waldman, A.&nbsp;Rubin, and L.&nbsp;Cranor.
- Publius: A robust, tamper-evident, censorship-resistant and
-  source-anonymous web publishing system.
- In <em>Proc. 9th USENIX Security Symposium</em>, pages 59-72, August
-  2000.
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-</dd>
- <dt><a href="#CITEwright03" name="wright03">[54]</a></dt><dd>
-M.&nbsp;Wright, M.&nbsp;Adler, B.&nbsp;N. Levine, and C.&nbsp;Shields.
- Defending anonymous communication against passive logging attacks.
- In <em>IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy</em>, pages 28-41. IEEE
-  CS, May 2003.</dd>
-</dl>
-
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<hr /><h3>Footnotes:</h3>
-
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<a name="tthFtNtAAB"></a><a href="#tthFrefAAB"><sup>1</sup></a>Actually, the negotiated key is used to derive two
-  symmetric keys: one for each direction.
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<a name="tthFtNtAAC"></a><a href="#tthFrefAAC"><sup>2</sup></a>
-        With 48 bits of digest per cell, the probability of an accidental
-collision is far lower than the chance of hardware failure.
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<a name="tthFtNtAAD"></a><a href="#tthFrefAAD"><sup>3</sup></a>
-Rather than rely on an external infrastructure, the Onion Routing network
-can run the lookup service itself.  Our current implementation provides a
-simple lookup system on the
-directory servers.
-<div class="p"><!----></div>
-<a name="tthFtNtAAE"></a><a href="#tthFrefAAE"><sup>4</sup></a>Note that this fingerprinting
-attack should not be confused with the much more complicated latency
-attacks of&nbsp;[<a href="#back01" name="CITEback01">5</a>], which require a fingerprint of the latencies
-of all circuits through the network, combined with those from the
-network edges to the target user and the responder website.
-<br /><br /><hr /><small>File translated from
-T<sub><font size="-1">E</font></sub>X
-by <a href="http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/">
-T<sub><font size="-1">T</font></sub>H</a>,
-version 3.59.<br />On 18 May 2004, 10:45.</small>
-</body></html>
-

doc/design-paper/tor-design.tex

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-\documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
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-
-% If an URL ends up with '%'s in it, that's because the line *in the .bib/.tex
-% file* is too long, so break it there (it doesn't matter if the next line is
-% indented with spaces). -DH
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-% page.
-\setlength{\textfloatsep}{3mm}
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-
-\begin{document}
-
-%% Use dvipdfm instead. --DH
-%\ifpdf
-%  \pdfcompresslevel=9
-%  \pdfpagewidth=\the\paperwidth
-%  \pdfpageheight=\the\paperheight
-%\fi
-
-\title{Tor: The Second-Generation Onion Router} %\\DRAFT VERSION}
-% Putting the 'Private' back in 'Virtual Private Network'
-
-\author{Roger Dingledine \\ The Free Haven Project \\ arma@freehaven.net \and
-Nick Mathewson \\ The Free Haven Project \\ nickm@freehaven.net \and
-Paul Syverson \\ Naval Research Lab \\ syverson@itd.nrl.navy.mil}
-
-\maketitle
-\thispagestyle{empty}
-
-\begin{abstract}
-We present Tor, a circuit-based low-latency anonymous communication
-service. This second-generation Onion Routing system addresses limitations
-in the original design by adding perfect forward secrecy, congestion
-control, directory servers, integrity checking, configurable exit policies,
-and a practical design for location-hidden services via rendezvous
-points. Tor works on the real-world
-Internet, requires no special privileges or kernel modifications, requires
-little synchronization or coordination between nodes, and provides a
-reasonable tradeoff between anonymity, usability, and efficiency.
-We briefly describe our experiences with an international network of
-more than 30 nodes. % that has been running for several months.
-We close with a list of open problems in anonymous communication.
-\end{abstract}
-
-%\begin{center}
-%\textbf{Keywords:} anonymity, peer-to-peer, remailer, nymserver, reply block
-%\end{center}
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-
-\section{Overview}
-\label{sec:intro}
-
-Onion Routing is a distributed overlay network designed to anonymize
-TCP-based applications like web browsing, secure shell,
-and instant messaging. Clients choose a path through the network and
-build a \emph{circuit}, in which each node (or ``onion router'' or ``OR'')
-in the path knows its predecessor and successor, but no other nodes in
-the circuit.  Traffic flows down the circuit in fixed-size
-\emph{cells}, which are unwrapped by a symmetric key at each node
-(like the layers of an onion) and relayed downstream. The
-Onion Routing project published several design and analysis
-papers \cite{or-ih96,or-jsac98,or-discex00,or-pet00}. While a wide area Onion
-Routing network was deployed briefly, the only long-running
-public implementation was a fragile
-proof-of-concept that ran on a single machine. Even this simple deployment
-processed connections from over sixty thousand distinct IP addresses from
-all over the world at a rate of about fifty thousand per day.
-But many critical design and deployment issues were never
-resolved, and the design has not been updated in years. Here
-we describe Tor, a protocol for asynchronous, loosely federated onion
-routers that provides the following improvements over the old Onion
-Routing design:
-
-\textbf{Perfect forward secrecy:} In the original Onion Routing design,
-a single hostile node could record traffic and
-later compromise successive nodes in the circuit and force them
-to decrypt it. Rather than using a single multiply encrypted data
-structure (an \emph{onion}) to lay each circuit,
-Tor now uses an incremental or \emph{telescoping} path-building design,
-where the initiator negotiates session keys with each successive hop in
-the circuit.  Once these keys are deleted, subsequently compromised nodes
-cannot decrypt old traffic.  As a side benefit, onion replay detection
-is no longer necessary, and the process of building circuits is more
-reliable, since the initiator knows when a hop fails and can then try
-extending to a new node.
-
-\textbf{Separation of ``protocol cleaning'' from anonymity:}
-Onion Routing originally required a separate ``application
-proxy'' for each supported application protocol---most of which were
-never written, so many applications were never supported.  Tor uses the
-standard and near-ubiquitous SOCKS~\cite{socks4} proxy interface, allowing
-us to support most TCP-based programs without modification.  Tor now
-relies on the filtering features of privacy-enhancing
-application-level proxies such as Privoxy~\cite{privoxy}, without trying
-to duplicate those features itself.
-
-\textbf{No mixing, padding, or traffic shaping (yet):} Onion
-Routing originally called for batching and reordering cells as they arrived,
-assumed padding between ORs, and in
-later designs added padding between onion proxies (users) and
-ORs~\cite{or-ih96,or-jsac98}.  Tradeoffs between padding protection
-and cost were discussed, and \emph{traffic shaping} algorithms were
-theorized~\cite{or-pet00} to provide good security without expensive
-padding, but no concrete padding scheme was suggested.
-Recent research~\cite{econymics}
-and deployment experience~\cite{freedom21-security} suggest that this
-level of resource use is not practical or economical; and even full
-link padding is still vulnerable~\cite{defensive-dropping}. Thus,
-until we have a proven and convenient design for traffic shaping or
-low-latency mixing that improves anonymity against a realistic
-adversary, we leave these strategies out.
-
-\textbf{Many TCP streams can share one circuit:} Onion Routing originally
-built a separate circuit for each
-application-level request, but this required
-multiple public key operations for every request, and also presented
-a threat to anonymity from building so many circuits; see
-Section~\ref{sec:maintaining-anonymity}.  Tor multiplexes multiple TCP
-streams along each circuit to improve efficiency and anonymity.
-
-\textbf{Leaky-pipe circuit topology:} Through in-band signaling
-within the circuit, Tor initiators can direct traffic to nodes partway
-down the circuit. This novel approach
-allows traffic to exit the circuit from the middle---possibly
-frustrating traffic shape and volume attacks based on observing the end
-of the circuit. (It also allows for long-range padding if
-future research shows this to be worthwhile.)
-
-\textbf{Congestion control:} Earlier anonymity designs do not
-address traffic bottlenecks. Unfortunately, typical approaches to
-load balancing and flow control in overlay networks involve inter-node
-control communication and global views of traffic. Tor's decentralized
-congestion control uses end-to-end acks to maintain anonymity
-while allowing nodes at the edges of the network to detect congestion
-or flooding and send less data until the congestion subsides.
-
-\textbf{Directory servers:} The earlier Onion Routing design
-planned to flood state information through the network---an approach
-that can be unreliable and complex. % open to partitioning attacks.
-Tor takes a simplified view toward distributing this
-information. Certain more trusted nodes act as \emph{directory
-servers}: they provide signed directories describing known
-routers and their current state. Users periodically download them
-via HTTP.
-
-\textbf{Variable exit policies:} Tor provides a consistent mechanism
-for each node to advertise a policy describing the hosts
-and ports to which it will connect. These exit policies are critical
-in a volunteer-based distributed infrastructure, because each operator
-is comfortable with allowing different types of traffic to exit
-from his node.
-
-\textbf{End-to-end integrity checking:} The original Onion Routing
-design did no integrity checking on data. Any node on the
-circuit could change the contents of data cells as they passed by---for
-example, to alter a connection request so it would connect
-to a different webserver, or to `tag' encrypted traffic and look for
-corresponding corrupted traffic at the network edges~\cite{minion-design}.
-Tor hampers these attacks by verifying data integrity before it leaves
-the network.
-
-%\textbf{Improved robustness to failed nodes:} A failed node
-%in the old design meant that circuit building failed, but thanks to
-%Tor's step-by-step circuit building, users notice failed nodes
-%while building circuits and route around them. Additionally, liveness
-%information from directories allows users to avoid unreliable nodes in
-%the first place.
-%% Can't really claim this, now that we've found so many variants of
-%% attack on partial-circuit-building. -RD
-
-\textbf{Rendezvous points and hidden services:}
-Tor provides an integrated mechanism for responder anonymity via
-location-protected servers.  Previous Onion Routing designs included
-long-lived ``reply onions'' that could be used to build circuits
-to a hidden server, but these reply onions did not provide forward
-security, and became useless if any node in the path went down
-or rotated its keys.  In Tor, clients negotiate {\it rendezvous points}
-to connect with hidden servers; reply onions are no longer required.
-
-Unlike Freedom~\cite{freedom2-arch}, Tor does not require OS kernel
-patches or network stack support.  This prevents us from anonymizing
-non-TCP protocols, but has greatly helped our portability and
-deployability.
-
-%Unlike Freedom~\cite{freedom2-arch}, Tor only anonymizes
-%TCP-based protocols---not requiring patches (or built-in support) in an
-%operating system's network stack has been valuable to Tor's
-%portability and deployability.
-
-We have implemented all of the above features, including rendezvous
-points. Our source code is
-available under a free license, and Tor
-%, as far as we know, is unencumbered by patents.
-is not covered by the patent that affected distribution and use of
-earlier versions of Onion Routing.
-We have deployed a wide-area alpha network
-to test the design, to get more experience with usability
-and users, and to provide a research platform for experimentation.
-As of this writing, the network stands at 32 nodes %in thirteen
-%distinct administrative domains
-spread over two continents.
-
-We review previous work in Section~\ref{sec:related-work}, describe
-our goals and assumptions in Section~\ref{sec:assumptions},
-and then address the above list of improvements in
-Sections~\ref{sec:design},~\ref{sec:rendezvous}, and~\ref{sec:other-design}.
-We summarize
-in Section~\ref{sec:attacks} how our design stands up to
-known attacks, and talk about our early deployment experiences in
-Section~\ref{sec:in-the-wild}. We conclude with a list of open problems in
-Section~\ref{sec:maintaining-anonymity} and future work for the Onion
-Routing project in Section~\ref{sec:conclusion}.
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-
-\section{Related work}
-\label{sec:related-work}
-
-Modern anonymity systems date to Chaum's {\bf Mix-Net}
-design~\cite{chaum-mix}. Chaum
-proposed hiding the correspondence between sender and recipient by
-wrapping messages in layers of public-key cryptography, and relaying them
-through a path composed of ``mixes.''  Each mix in turn
-decrypts, delays, and re-orders messages before relaying them
-onward.
-%toward their destinations.
-
-Subsequent relay-based anonymity designs have diverged in two
-main directions. Systems like {\bf Babel}~\cite{babel},
-{\bf Mixmaster}~\cite{mixmaster-spec},
-and {\bf Mixminion}~\cite{minion-design} have tried
-to maximize anonymity at the cost of introducing comparatively large and
-variable latencies. Because of this decision, these \emph{high-latency}
-networks resist strong global adversaries,
-but introduce too much lag for interactive tasks like web browsing,
-Internet chat, or SSH connections.
-
-Tor belongs to the second category: \emph{low-latency} designs that
-try to anonymize interactive network traffic. These systems handle
-a variety of bidirectional protocols. They also provide more convenient
-mail delivery than the high-latency anonymous email
-networks, because the remote mail server provides explicit and timely
-delivery confirmation. But because these designs typically
-involve many packets that must be delivered quickly, it is
-difficult for them to prevent an attacker who can eavesdrop both ends of the
-communication from correlating the timing and volume
-of traffic entering the anonymity network with traffic leaving it~\cite{SS03}.
-These
-protocols are similarly vulnerable to an active adversary who introduces
-timing patterns into traffic entering the network and looks
-for correlated patterns among exiting traffic.
-Although some work has been done to frustrate these attacks, most designs
-protect primarily against traffic analysis rather than traffic
-confirmation (see Section~\ref{subsec:threat-model}).
-
-The simplest low-latency designs are single-hop proxies such as the
-{\bf Anonymizer}~\cite{anonymizer}: a single trusted server strips the
-data's origin before relaying it.  These designs are easy to
-analyze, but users must trust the anonymizing proxy.
-Concentrating the traffic to this single point increases the anonymity set
-(the people a given user is hiding among), but it is vulnerable if the
-adversary can observe all traffic entering and leaving the proxy.
-
-More complex are distributed-trust, circuit-based anonymizing systems.
-In these designs, a user establishes one or more medium-term bidirectional
-end-to-end circuits, and tunnels data in fixed-size cells.
-Establishing circuits is computationally expensive and typically
-requires public-key
-cryptography, whereas relaying cells is comparatively inexpensive and
-typically requires only symmetric encryption.
-Because a circuit crosses several servers, and each server only knows
-the adjacent servers in the circuit, no single server can link a
-user to her communication partners.
-
-The {\bf Java Anon Proxy} (also known as JAP or Web MIXes) uses fixed shared
-routes known as \emph{cascades}.  As with a single-hop proxy, this
-approach aggregates users into larger anonymity sets, but again an
-attacker only needs to observe both ends of the cascade to bridge all
-the system's traffic.  The Java Anon Proxy's design
-calls for padding between end users and the head of the
-cascade~\cite{web-mix}. However, it is not demonstrated whether the current
-implementation's padding policy improves anonymity.
-
-{\bf PipeNet}~\cite{back01, pipenet}, another low-latency design proposed
-around the same time as Onion Routing, gave
-stronger anonymity but allowed a single user to shut
-down the network by not sending. Systems like {\bf ISDN
-mixes}~\cite{isdn-mixes} were designed for other environments with
-different assumptions.
-%XXX please can we fix this sentence to something less demeaning
-
-In P2P designs like {\bf Tarzan}~\cite{tarzan:ccs02} and
-{\bf MorphMix}~\cite{morphmix:fc04}, all participants both generate
-traffic and relay traffic for others. These systems aim to conceal
-whether a given peer originated a request
-or just relayed it from another peer. While Tarzan and MorphMix use
-layered encryption as above, {\bf Crowds}~\cite{crowds-tissec} simply assumes
-an adversary who cannot observe the initiator: it uses no public-key
-encryption, so any node on a circuit can read users' traffic.
-
-{\bf Hordes}~\cite{hordes-jcs} is based on Crowds but also uses multicast
-responses to hide the initiator. {\bf Herbivore}~\cite{herbivore} and
-$\mbox{\bf P}^{\mathbf 5}$~\cite{p5} go even further, requiring broadcast.
-These systems are designed primarily for communication among peers,
-although Herbivore users can make external connections by
-requesting a peer to serve as a proxy.
-
-Systems like {\bf Freedom} and the original Onion Routing build circuits
-all at once, using a layered ``onion'' of public-key encrypted messages,
-each layer of which provides session keys and the address of the
-next server in the circuit. Tor as described herein, Tarzan, MorphMix,
-{\bf Cebolla}~\cite{cebolla}, and Rennhard's {\bf Anonymity Network}~\cite{anonnet}
-build circuits
-in stages, extending them one hop at a time.
-Section~\ref{subsubsec:constructing-a-circuit} describes how this
-approach enables perfect forward secrecy.
-
-Circuit-based designs must choose which protocol layer
-to anonymize. They may intercept IP packets directly, and
-relay them whole (stripping the source address) along the
-circuit~\cite{freedom2-arch,tarzan:ccs02}.  Like
-Tor, they may accept TCP streams and relay the data in those streams,
-ignoring the breakdown of that data into TCP
-segments~\cite{morphmix:fc04,anonnet}. Finally, like Crowds, they may accept
-application-level protocols such as HTTP and relay the application
-requests themselves.
-Making this protocol-layer decision requires a compromise between flexibility
-and anonymity.  For example, a system that understands HTTP
-can strip
-identifying information from requests, can take advantage of caching
-to limit the number of requests that leave the network, and can batch
-or encode requests to minimize the number of connections.
-On the other hand, an IP-level anonymizer can handle nearly any protocol,
-even ones unforeseen by its designers (though these systems require
-kernel-level modifications to some operating systems, and so are more
-complex and less portable). TCP-level anonymity networks like Tor present
-a middle approach: they are application neutral (so long as the
-application supports, or can be tunneled across, TCP), but by treating
-application connections as data streams rather than raw TCP packets,
-they avoid the inefficiencies of tunneling TCP over
-TCP.
-
-Distributed-trust anonymizing systems need to prevent attackers from
-adding too many servers and thus compromising user paths.
-Tor relies on a small set of well-known directory servers, run by
-independent parties, to decide which nodes can
-join. Tarzan and MorphMix allow unknown users to run servers, and use
-a limited resource (like IP addresses) to prevent an attacker from
-controlling too much of the network.  Crowds suggests requiring
-written, notarized requests from potential crowd members.
-
-Anonymous communication is essential for censorship-resistant
-systems like Eternity~\cite{eternity}, Free~Haven~\cite{freehaven-berk},
-Publius~\cite{publius}, and Tangler~\cite{tangler}. Tor's rendezvous
-points enable connections between mutually anonymous entities; they
-are a building block for location-hidden servers, which are needed by
-Eternity and Free~Haven.
-
-% didn't include rewebbers. No clear place to put them, so I'll leave
-% them out for now. -RD
-
-\section{Design goals and assumptions}
-\label{sec:assumptions}
-
-\noindent{\large\bf Goals}\\
-Like other low-latency anonymity designs, Tor seeks to frustrate
-attackers from linking communication partners, or from linking
-multiple communications to or from a single user.  Within this
-main goal, however, several considerations have directed
-Tor's evolution.
-
-\textbf{Deployability:} The design must be deployed and used in the
-real world.  Thus it
-must not be expensive to run (for example, by requiring more bandwidth
-than volunteers are willing to provide); must not place a heavy
-liability burden on operators (for example, by allowing attackers to
-implicate onion routers in illegal activities); and must not be
-difficult or expensive to implement (for example, by requiring kernel
-patches, or separate proxies for every protocol).  We also cannot
-require non-anonymous parties (such as websites)
-to run our software.  (Our rendezvous point design does not meet
-this goal for non-anonymous users talking to hidden servers,
-however; see Section~\ref{sec:rendezvous}.)
-
-\textbf{Usability:} A hard-to-use system has fewer users---and because
-anonymity systems hide users among users, a system with fewer users
-provides less anonymity.  Usability is thus not only a convenience:
-it is a security requirement~\cite{econymics,back01}. Tor should
-therefore not
-require modifying familiar applications; should not introduce prohibitive
-delays;
-and should require as few configuration decisions
-as possible.  Finally, Tor should be easily implementable on all common
-platforms; we cannot require users to change their operating system
-to be anonymous.  (Tor currently runs on Win32, Linux,
-Solaris, BSD-style Unix, MacOS X, and probably others.)
-
-\textbf{Flexibility:} The protocol must be flexible and well-specified,
-so Tor can serve as a test-bed for future research.
-Many of the open problems in low-latency anonymity
-networks, such as generating dummy traffic or preventing Sybil
-attacks~\cite{sybil}, may be solvable independently from the issues
-solved by
-Tor. Hopefully future systems will not need to reinvent Tor's design.
-%(But note that while a flexible design benefits researchers,
-%there is a danger that differing choices of extensions will make users
-%distinguishable. Experiments should be run on a separate network.)
-
-\textbf{Simple design:} The protocol's design and security
-parameters must be well-understood. Additional features impose implementation
-and complexity costs; adding unproven techniques to the design threatens
-deployability, readability, and ease of security analysis. Tor aims to
-deploy a simple and stable system that integrates the best accepted
-approaches to protecting anonymity.\\
-
-\noindent{\large\bf Non-goals}\label{subsec:non-goals}\\
-In favoring simple, deployable designs, we have explicitly deferred
-several possible goals, either because they are solved elsewhere, or because
-they are not yet solved.
-
-\textbf{Not peer-to-peer:} Tarzan and MorphMix aim to scale to completely
-decentralized peer-to-peer environments with thousands of short-lived
-servers, many of which may be controlled by an adversary.  This approach
-is appealing, but still has many open
-problems~\cite{tarzan:ccs02,morphmix:fc04}.
-
-\textbf{Not secure against end-to-end attacks:} Tor does not claim
-to completely solve end-to-end timing or intersection
-attacks. Some approaches, such as having users run their own onion routers,
-may help;
-see Section~\ref{sec:maintaining-anonymity} for more discussion.
-
-\textbf{No protocol normalization:} Tor does not provide \emph{protocol
-normalization} like Privoxy or the Anonymizer. If senders want anonymity from
-responders while using complex and variable
-protocols like HTTP, Tor must be layered with a filtering proxy such
-as Privoxy to hide differences between clients, and expunge protocol
-features that leak identity.
-Note that by this separation Tor can also provide services that
-are anonymous to the network yet authenticated to the responder, like
-SSH. Similarly, Tor does not integrate
-tunneling for non-stream-based protocols like UDP; this must be
-provided by an external service if appropriate.
-
-\textbf{Not steganographic:} Tor does not try to conceal who is connected
-to the network.
-
-\subsection{Threat Model}
-\label{subsec:threat-model}
-
-A global passive adversary is the most commonly assumed threat when
-analyzing theoretical anonymity designs. But like all practical
-low-latency systems, Tor does not protect against such a strong
-adversary. Instead, we assume an adversary who can observe some fraction
-of network traffic; who can generate, modify, delete, or delay
-traffic;  who can operate onion routers of his own; and who can
-compromise some fraction of the onion routers.
-
-In low-latency anonymity systems that use layered encryption, the
-adversary's typical goal is to observe both the initiator and the
-responder. By observing both ends, passive attackers can confirm a
-suspicion that Alice is
-talking to Bob if the timing and volume patterns of the traffic on the
-connection are distinct enough; active attackers can induce timing
-signatures on the traffic to force distinct patterns. Rather
-than focusing on these \emph{traffic confirmation} attacks,
-we aim to prevent \emph{traffic
-analysis} attacks, where the adversary uses traffic patterns to learn
-which points in the network he should attack.
-
-Our adversary might try to link an initiator Alice with her
-communication partners, or try to build a profile of Alice's
-behavior. He might mount passive attacks by observing the network edges
-and correlating traffic entering and leaving the network---by
-relationships in packet timing, volume, or externally visible
-user-selected
-options. The adversary can also mount active attacks by compromising
-routers or keys; by replaying traffic; by selectively denying service
-to trustworthy routers to move users to
-compromised routers, or denying service to users to see if traffic
-elsewhere in the
-network stops; or by introducing patterns into traffic that can later be
-detected. The adversary might subvert the directory servers to give users
-differing views of network state. Additionally, he can try to decrease
-the network's reliability by attacking nodes or by performing antisocial
-activities from reliable nodes and trying to get them taken down---making
-the network unreliable flushes users to other less anonymous
-systems, where they may be easier to attack. We summarize
-in Section~\ref{sec:attacks} how well the Tor design defends against
-each of these attacks.
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-
-\section{The Tor Design}
-\label{sec:design}
-
-The Tor network is an overlay network; each onion router (OR)
-runs as a normal
-user-level process without any special privileges.
-Each onion router maintains a TLS~\cite{TLS}
-connection to every other onion router.
-%(We discuss alternatives to this clique-topology assumption in
-%Section~\ref{sec:maintaining-anonymity}.)
-% A subset of the ORs also act as
-%directory servers, tracking which routers are in the network;
-%see Section~\ref{subsec:dirservers} for directory server details.
-Each user
-runs local software called an onion proxy (OP) to fetch directories,
-establish circuits across the network,
-and handle connections from user applications.  These onion proxies accept
-TCP streams and multiplex them across the circuits. The onion
-router on the other side
-of the circuit connects to the requested destinations
-and relays data.
-
-Each onion router maintains a long-term identity key and a short-term
-onion key. The identity
-key is used to sign TLS certificates, to sign the OR's \emph{router
-descriptor} (a summary of its keys, address, bandwidth, exit policy,
-and so on), and (by directory servers) to sign directories. %Changing
-%the identity key of a router is considered equivalent to creating a
-%new router. 
-The onion key is used to decrypt requests
-from users to set up a circuit and negotiate ephemeral keys. 
-The TLS protocol also establishes a short-term link key when communicating
-between ORs. Short-term keys are rotated periodically and
-independently, to limit the impact of key compromise.
-
-Section~\ref{subsec:cells} presents the fixed-size
-\emph{cells} that are the unit of communication in Tor. We describe
-in Section~\ref{subsec:circuits} how circuits are
-built, extended, truncated, and destroyed. Section~\ref{subsec:tcp}
-describes how TCP streams are routed through the network.  We address
-integrity checking in Section~\ref{subsec:integrity-checking},
-and resource limiting in Section~\ref{subsec:rate-limit}.
-Finally,
-Section~\ref{subsec:congestion} talks about congestion control and
-fairness issues.
-
-\subsection{Cells}
-\label{subsec:cells}
-
-Onion routers communicate with one another, and with users' OPs, via
-TLS connections with ephemeral keys.  Using TLS conceals the data on
-the connection with perfect forward secrecy, and prevents an attacker
-from modifying data on the wire or impersonating an OR.
-
-Traffic passes along these connections in fixed-size cells.  Each cell
-is 512 bytes, %(but see Section~\ref{sec:conclusion} for a discussion of
-%allowing large cells and small cells on the same network),
-and consists of a header and a payload. The header includes a circuit
-identifier (circID) that specifies which circuit the cell refers to
-(many circuits can be multiplexed over the single TLS connection), and
-a command to describe what to do with the cell's payload.  (Circuit
-identifiers are connection-specific: each circuit has a different
-circID on each OP/OR or OR/OR connection it traverses.)
-Based on their command, cells are either \emph{control} cells, which are
-always interpreted by the node that receives them, or \emph{relay} cells,
-which carry end-to-end stream data.   The control cell commands are:
-\emph{padding} (currently used for keepalive, but also usable for link
-padding); \emph{create} or \emph{created} (used to set up a new circuit);
-and \emph{destroy} (to tear down a circuit).
-
-Relay cells have an additional header (the relay header) at the front
-of the payload, containing a streamID (stream identifier: many streams can
-be multiplexed over a circuit); an end-to-end checksum for integrity
-checking; the length of the relay payload; and a relay command.
-The entire contents of the relay header and the relay cell payload
-are encrypted or decrypted together as the relay cell moves along the
-circuit, using the 128-bit AES cipher in counter mode to generate a
-cipher stream.  The relay commands are: \emph{relay
-data} (for data flowing down the stream), \emph{relay begin} (to open a
-stream), \emph{relay end} (to close a stream cleanly), \emph{relay
-teardown} (to close a broken stream), \emph{relay connected}
-(to notify the OP that a relay begin has succeeded), \emph{relay
-extend} and \emph{relay extended} (to extend the circuit by a hop,
-and to acknowledge), \emph{relay truncate} and \emph{relay truncated}
-(to tear down only part of the circuit, and to acknowledge), \emph{relay
-sendme} (used for congestion control), and \emph{relay drop} (used to
-implement long-range dummies).
-We give a visual overview of cell structure plus the details of relay
-cell structure, and then describe each of these cell types and commands
-in more detail below.
-
-%\begin{figure}[h]
-%\unitlength=1cm
-%\centering
-%\begin{picture}(8.0,1.5)
-%\put(4,.5){\makebox(0,0)[c]{\epsfig{file=cell-struct,width=7cm}}}
-%\end{picture}
-%\end{figure}
-
-\begin{figure}[h]
-\centering
-\mbox{\epsfig{figure=cell-struct,width=7cm}}
-\end{figure}
-
-\subsection{Circuits and streams}
-\label{subsec:circuits}
-
-Onion Routing originally built one circuit for each
-TCP stream.  Because building a circuit can take several tenths of a
-second (due to public-key cryptography and network latency),
-this design imposed high costs on applications like web browsing that
-open many TCP streams.
-
-In Tor, each circuit can be shared by many TCP streams.  To avoid
-delays, users construct circuits preemptively.  To limit linkability
-among their streams, users' OPs build a new circuit
-periodically if the previous ones have been used,
-and expire old used circuits that no longer have any open streams.
-OPs consider rotating to a new circuit once a minute: thus
-even heavy users spend negligible time
-building circuits, but a limited number of requests can be linked
-to each other through a given exit node. Also, because circuits are built
-in the background, OPs can recover from failed circuit creation
-without harming user experience.\\
-
-\begin{figure}[h]
-\centering
-\mbox{\epsfig{figure=interaction,width=8.75cm}}
-\caption{Alice builds a two-hop circuit and begins fetching a web page.}
-\label{fig:interaction}
-\end{figure}
-
-\noindent{\large\bf Constructing a circuit}\label{subsubsec:constructing-a-circuit}\\
-%\subsubsection{Constructing a circuit}
-A user's OP constructs circuits incrementally, negotiating a
-symmetric key with each OR on the circuit, one hop at a time. To begin
-creating a new circuit, the OP (call her Alice) sends a
-\emph{create} cell to the first node in her chosen path (call him Bob).
-(She chooses a new
-circID $C_{AB}$ not currently used on the connection from her to Bob.)
-The \emph{create} cell's
-payload contains the first half of the Diffie-Hellman handshake
-($g^x$), encrypted to the onion key of Bob. Bob
-responds with a \emph{created} cell containing $g^y$
-along with a hash of the negotiated key $K=g^{xy}$.
-
-Once the circuit has been established, Alice and Bob can send one
-another relay cells encrypted with the negotiated
-key.\footnote{Actually, the negotiated key is used to derive two
-  symmetric keys: one for each direction.}  More detail is given in
-the next section.
-
-To extend the circuit further, Alice sends a \emph{relay extend} cell
-to Bob, specifying the address of the next OR (call her Carol), and
-an encrypted $g^{x_2}$ for her.  Bob copies the half-handshake into a
-\emph{create} cell, and passes it to Carol to extend the circuit.
-(Bob chooses a new circID $C_{BC}$ not currently used on the connection
-between him and Carol.  Alice never needs to know this circID; only Bob
-associates $C_{AB}$ on his connection with Alice to $C_{BC}$ on
-his connection with Carol.)
-When Carol responds with a \emph{created} cell, Bob wraps the payload
-into a \emph{relay extended} cell and passes it back to Alice.  Now
-the circuit is extended to Carol, and Alice and Carol share a common key
-$K_2 = g^{x_2 y_2}$.
-
-To extend the circuit to a third node or beyond, Alice
-proceeds as above, always telling the last node in the circuit to
-extend one hop further.
-
-This circuit-level handshake protocol achieves unilateral entity
-authentication (Alice knows she's handshaking with the OR, but
-the OR doesn't care who is opening the circuit---Alice uses no public key
-and remains anonymous) and unilateral key authentication
-(Alice and the OR agree on a key, and Alice knows only the OR learns
-it). It also achieves forward
-secrecy and key freshness. More formally, the protocol is as follows
-(where $E_{PK_{Bob}}(\cdot)$ is encryption with Bob's public key,
-$H$ is a secure hash function, and $|$ is concatenation):
-\begin{equation*}
-\begin{aligned}
-\mathrm{Alice} \rightarrow \mathrm{Bob}&: E_{PK_{Bob}}(g^x) \\
-\mathrm{Bob} \rightarrow \mathrm{Alice}&: g^y, H(K | \mathrm{``handshake"}) \\
-\end{aligned}
-\end{equation*}
-
-\noindent In the second step, Bob proves that it was he who received $g^x$,
-and who chose $y$. We use PK encryption in the first step
-(rather than, say, using the first two steps of STS, which has a
-signature in the second step) because a single cell is too small to
-hold both a public key and a signature. Preliminary analysis with the
-NRL protocol analyzer~\cite{meadows96} shows this protocol to be
-secure (including perfect forward secrecy) under the
-traditional Dolev-Yao model.\\
-
-\noindent{\large\bf Relay cells}\\
-%\subsubsection{Relay cells}
-%
-Once Alice has established the circuit (so she shares keys with each
-OR on the circuit), she can send relay cells.
-%Recall that every relay cell has a streamID that indicates to which
-%stream the cell belongs.  %This streamID allows a relay cell to be
-%addressed to any OR on the circuit.  
-Upon receiving a relay
-cell, an OR looks up the corresponding circuit, and decrypts the relay
-header and payload with the session key for that circuit.
-If the cell is headed away from Alice the OR then checks whether the
-decrypted cell has a valid digest (as an optimization, the first
-two bytes of the integrity check are zero, so in most cases we can avoid
-computing the hash).
-%is recognized---either because it
-%corresponds to an open stream at this OR for the given circuit, or because
-%it is the control streamID (zero).
-If valid, it accepts the relay cell and processes it as described
-below.  Otherwise,
-the OR looks up the circID and OR for the
-next step in the circuit, replaces the circID as appropriate, and
-sends the decrypted relay cell to the next OR.  (If the OR at the end
-of the circuit receives an unrecognized relay cell, an error has
-occurred, and the circuit is torn down.)
-
-OPs treat incoming relay cells similarly: they iteratively unwrap the
-relay header and payload with the session keys shared with each
-OR on the circuit, from the closest to farthest.
-If at any stage the digest is valid, the cell must have
-originated at the OR whose encryption has just been removed.
-
-To construct a relay cell addressed to a given OR, Alice assigns the
-digest, and then iteratively
-encrypts the cell payload (that is, the relay header and payload) with
-the symmetric key of each hop up to that OR.  Because the digest is
-encrypted to a different value at each step, only at the targeted OR
-will it have a meaningful value.\footnote{
-  % Should we just say that 2^56 is itself negligible?
-  % Assuming 4-hop circuits with 10 streams per hop, there are 33
-  % possible bad streamIDs before the last circuit.  This still
-  % gives an error only once every 2 million terabytes (approx).
-With 48 bits of digest per cell, the probability of an accidental
-collision is far lower than the chance of hardware failure.}
-This \emph{leaky pipe} circuit topology
-allows Alice's streams to exit at different ORs on a single circuit.
-Alice may choose different exit points because of their exit policies,
-or to keep the ORs from knowing that two streams
-originate from the same person.
-
-When an OR later replies to Alice with a relay cell, it
-encrypts the cell's relay header and payload with the single key it
-shares with Alice, and sends the cell back toward Alice along the
-circuit.  Subsequent ORs add further layers of encryption as they
-relay the cell back to Alice.
-
-To tear down a circuit, Alice sends a \emph{destroy} control
-cell. Each OR in the circuit receives the \emph{destroy} cell, closes
-all streams on that circuit, and passes a new \emph{destroy} cell
-forward. But just as circuits are built incrementally, they can also
-be torn down incrementally: Alice can send a \emph{relay
-truncate} cell to a single OR on a circuit. That OR then sends a
-\emph{destroy} cell forward, and acknowledges with a
-\emph{relay truncated} cell. Alice can then extend the circuit to
-different nodes, without signaling to the intermediate nodes (or
-a limited observer) that she has changed her circuit.
-Similarly, if a node on the circuit goes down, the adjacent
-node can send a \emph{relay truncated} cell back to Alice.  Thus the
-``break a node and see which circuits go down''
-attack~\cite{freedom21-security} is weakened.
-
-\subsection{Opening and closing streams}
-\label{subsec:tcp}
-
-When Alice's application wants a TCP connection to a given
-address and port, it asks the OP (via SOCKS) to make the
-connection. The OP chooses the newest open circuit (or creates one if
-needed), and chooses a suitable OR on that circuit to be the
-exit node (usually the last node, but maybe others due to exit policy
-conflicts; see Section~\ref{subsec:exitpolicies}.) The OP then opens
-the stream by sending a \emph{relay begin} cell to the exit node,
-using a new random streamID. Once the
-exit node connects to the remote host, it responds
-with a \emph{relay connected} cell.  Upon receipt, the OP sends a
-SOCKS reply to notify the application of its success. The OP
-now accepts data from the application's TCP stream, packaging it into
-\emph{relay data} cells and sending those cells along the circuit to
-the chosen OR.
-
-There's a catch to using SOCKS, however---some applications pass the
-alphanumeric hostname to the Tor client, while others resolve it into
-an IP address first and then pass the IP address to the Tor client. If
-the application does DNS resolution first, Alice thereby reveals her
-destination to the remote DNS server, rather than sending the hostname
-through the Tor network to be resolved at the far end. Common applications
-like Mozilla and SSH have this flaw.
-
-With Mozilla, the flaw is easy to address: the filtering HTTP
-proxy called Privoxy gives a hostname to the Tor client, so Alice's
-computer never does DNS resolution.
-But a portable general solution, such as is needed for
-SSH, is
-an open problem. Modifying or replacing the local nameserver
-can be invasive, brittle, and unportable. Forcing the resolver
-library to prefer TCP rather than UDP is hard, and also has
-portability problems. Dynamically intercepting system calls to the
-resolver library seems a promising direction. We could also provide
-a tool similar to \emph{dig} to perform a private lookup through the
-Tor network. Currently, we encourage the use of privacy-aware proxies
-like Privoxy wherever possible.
-
-Closing a Tor stream is analogous to closing a TCP stream: it uses a
-two-step handshake for normal operation, or a one-step handshake for
-errors. If the stream closes abnormally, the adjacent node simply sends a
-\emph{relay teardown} cell. If the stream closes normally, the node sends
-a \emph{relay end} cell down the circuit, and the other side responds with
-its own \emph{relay end} cell. Because
-all relay cells use layered encryption, only the destination OR knows
-that a given relay cell is a request to close a stream.  This two-step
-handshake allows Tor to support TCP-based applications that use half-closed
-connections.
-% such as broken HTTP clients that close their side of the
-%stream after writing but are still willing to read.
-
-\subsection{Integrity checking on streams}
-\label{subsec:integrity-checking}
-
-Because the old Onion Routing design used a stream cipher without integrity
-checking, traffic was
-vulnerable to a malleability attack: though the attacker could not
-decrypt cells, any changes to encrypted data
-would create corresponding changes to the data leaving the network.
-This weakness allowed an adversary who could guess the encrypted content
-to change a padding cell to a destroy
-cell; change the destination address in a \emph{relay begin} cell to the
-adversary's webserver; or change an FTP command from
-{\tt dir} to {\tt rm~*}. (Even an external
-adversary could do this, because the link encryption similarly used a
-stream cipher.)
-
-Because Tor uses TLS on its links, external adversaries cannot modify
-data. Addressing the insider malleability attack, however, is
-more complex.
-
-We could do integrity checking of the relay cells at each hop, either
-by including hashes or by using an authenticating cipher mode like
-EAX~\cite{eax}, but there are some problems. First, these approaches
-impose a message-expansion overhead at each hop, and so we would have to
-either leak the path length or waste bytes by padding to a maximum
-path length. Second, these solutions can only verify traffic coming
-from Alice: ORs would not be able to produce suitable hashes for
-the intermediate hops, since the ORs on a circuit do not know the
-other ORs' session keys. Third, we have already accepted that our design
-is vulnerable to end-to-end timing attacks; so tagging attacks performed
-within the circuit provide no additional information to the attacker.
-
-Thus, we check integrity only at the edges of each stream. (Remember that
-in our leaky-pipe circuit topology, a stream's edge could be any hop
-in the circuit.) When Alice
-negotiates a key with a new hop, they each initialize a SHA-1
-digest with a derivative of that key,
-thus beginning with randomness that only the two of them know.
-Then they each incrementally add to the SHA-1 digest the contents of
-all relay cells they create, and include with each relay cell the
-first four bytes of the current digest.  Each also keeps a SHA-1
-digest of data received, to verify that the received hashes are correct.
-
-To be sure of removing or modifying a cell, the attacker must be able
-to deduce the current digest state (which depends on all
-traffic between Alice and Bob, starting with their negotiated key).
-Attacks on SHA-1 where the adversary can incrementally add to a hash
-to produce a new valid hash don't work, because all hashes are
-end-to-end encrypted across the circuit.  The computational overhead
-of computing the digests is minimal compared to doing the AES
-encryption performed at each hop of the circuit. We use only four
-bytes per cell to minimize overhead; the chance that an adversary will
-correctly guess a valid hash
-%, plus the payload the current cell,
-is
-acceptably low, given that the OP or OR tear down the circuit if they
-receive a bad hash.
-
-\subsection{Rate limiting and fairness}
-\label{subsec:rate-limit}
-
-Volunteers are more willing to run services that can limit
-their bandwidth usage. To accommodate them, Tor servers use a
-token bucket approach~\cite{tannenbaum96} to
-enforce a long-term average rate of incoming bytes, while still
-permitting short-term bursts above the allowed bandwidth.
-% Current bucket sizes are set to ten seconds' worth of traffic.
-
-%Further, we want to avoid starving any Tor streams. Entire circuits
-%could starve if we read greedily from connections and one connection
-%uses all the remaining bandwidth. We solve this by dividing the number
-%of tokens in the bucket by the number of connections that want to read,
-%and reading at most that number of bytes from each connection. We iterate
-%this procedure until the number of tokens in the bucket is under some
-%threshold (currently 10KB), at which point we greedily read from connections.
-
-Because the Tor protocol outputs about the same number of bytes as it
-takes in, it is sufficient in practice to limit only incoming bytes.
-With TCP streams, however, the correspondence is not one-to-one:
-relaying a single incoming byte can require an entire 512-byte cell.
-(We can't just wait for more bytes, because the local application may
-be awaiting a reply.) Therefore, we treat this case as if the entire
-cell size had been read, regardless of the cell's fullness.
-
-Further, inspired by Rennhard et al's design in~\cite{anonnet}, a
-circuit's edges can heuristically distinguish interactive streams from bulk
-streams by comparing the frequency with which they supply cells.  We can
-provide good latency for interactive streams by giving them preferential
-service, while still giving good overall throughput to the bulk
-streams. Such preferential treatment presents a possible end-to-end
-attack, but an adversary observing both
-ends of the stream can already learn this information through timing
-attacks.
-
-\subsection{Congestion control}
-\label{subsec:congestion}
-
-Even with bandwidth rate limiting, we still need to worry about
-congestion, either accidental or intentional. If enough users choose the
-same OR-to-OR connection for their circuits, that connection can become
-saturated. For example, an attacker could send a large file
-through the Tor network to a webserver he runs, and then
-refuse to read any of the bytes at the webserver end of the
-circuit. Without some congestion control mechanism, these bottlenecks
-can propagate back through the entire network. We don't need to
-reimplement full TCP windows (with sequence numbers,
-the ability to drop cells when we're full and retransmit later, and so
-on),
-because TCP already guarantees in-order delivery of each
-cell.
-%But we need to investigate further the effects of the current
-%parameters on throughput and latency, while also keeping privacy in mind;
-%see Section~\ref{sec:maintaining-anonymity} for more discussion.
-We describe our response below.
-
-\textbf{Circuit-level throttling:}
-To control a circuit's bandwidth usage, each OR keeps track of two
-windows. The \emph{packaging window} tracks how many relay data cells the OR is
-allowed to package (from incoming TCP streams) for transmission back to the OP,
-and the \emph{delivery window} tracks how many relay data cells it is willing
-to deliver to TCP streams outside the network. Each window is initialized
-(say, to 1000 data cells). When a data cell is packaged or delivered,
-the appropriate window is decremented. When an OR has received enough
-data cells (currently 100), it sends a \emph{relay sendme} cell towards the OP,
-with streamID zero. When an OR receives a \emph{relay sendme} cell with
-streamID zero, it increments its packaging window. Either of these cells
-increments the corresponding window by 100. If the packaging window
-reaches 0, the OR stops reading from TCP connections for all streams
-on the corresponding circuit, and sends no more relay data cells until
-receiving a \emph{relay sendme} cell.
-
-The OP behaves identically, except that it must track a packaging window
-and a delivery window for every OR in the circuit. If a packaging window
-reaches 0, it stops reading from streams destined for that OR.
-
-\textbf{Stream-level throttling}:
-The stream-level congestion control mechanism is similar to the
-circuit-level mechanism. ORs and OPs use \emph{relay sendme} cells
-to implement end-to-end flow control for individual streams across
-circuits. Each stream begins with a packaging window (currently 500 cells),
-and increments the window by a fixed value (50) upon receiving a \emph{relay
-sendme} cell. Rather than always returning a \emph{relay sendme} cell as soon
-as enough cells have arrived, the stream-level congestion control also
-has to check whether data has been successfully flushed onto the TCP
-stream; it sends the \emph{relay sendme} cell only when the number of bytes pending
-to be flushed is under some threshold (currently 10 cells' worth).
-
-%% Maybe omit this next paragraph. -NM
-%Currently, non-data relay cells do not affect the windows. Thus we
-%avoid potential deadlock issues, for example, arising because a stream
-%can't send a \emph{relay sendme} cell when its packaging window is empty.
-
-These arbitrarily chosen parameters seem to give tolerable throughput
-and delay; see Section~\ref{sec:in-the-wild}.
-
-\section{Rendezvous Points and hidden services}
-\label{sec:rendezvous}
-
-Rendezvous points are a building block for \emph{location-hidden
-services} (also known as \emph{responder anonymity}) in the Tor
-network.  Location-hidden services allow Bob to offer a TCP
-service, such as a webserver, without revealing his IP address.
-This type of anonymity protects against distributed DoS attacks:
-attackers are forced to attack the onion routing network
-because they do not know Bob's IP address.
-
-Our design for location-hidden servers has the following goals.
-\textbf{Access-control:} Bob needs a way to filter incoming requests,
-so an attacker cannot flood Bob simply by making many connections to him.
-\textbf{Robustness:} Bob should be able to maintain a long-term pseudonymous
-identity even in the presence of router failure. Bob's service must
-not be tied to a single OR, and Bob must be able to migrate his service
-across ORs. \textbf{Smear-resistance:}
-A social attacker
-should not be able to ``frame'' a rendezvous router by
-offering an illegal or disreputable location-hidden service and
-making observers believe the router created that service.
-\textbf{Application-transparency:} Although we require users
-to run special software to access location-hidden servers, we must not
-require them to modify their applications.
-
-We provide location-hiding for Bob by allowing him to advertise
-several onion routers (his \emph{introduction points}) as contact
-points. He may do this on any robust efficient
-key-value lookup system with authenticated updates, such as a
-distributed hash table (DHT) like CFS~\cite{cfs:sosp01}.\footnote{
-Rather than rely on an external infrastructure, the Onion Routing network
-can run the lookup service itself.  Our current implementation provides a
-simple lookup system on the
-directory servers.} Alice, the client, chooses an OR as her
-\emph{rendezvous point}. She connects to one of Bob's introduction
-points, informs him of her rendezvous point, and then waits for him
-to connect to the rendezvous point. This extra level of indirection
-helps Bob's introduction points avoid problems associated with serving
-unpopular files directly (for example, if Bob serves
-material that the introduction point's community finds objectionable,
-or if Bob's service tends to get attacked by network vandals).
-The extra level of indirection also allows Bob to respond to some requests
-and ignore others.
-
-\subsection{Rendezvous points in Tor}
-
-The following steps are
-%We give an overview of the steps of a rendezvous. These are
-performed on behalf of Alice and Bob by their local OPs;
-application integration is described more fully below.
-
-\begin{tightlist}
-\item Bob generates a long-term public key pair to identify his service.
-\item Bob chooses some introduction points, and advertises them on
-      the lookup service, signing the advertisement with his public key.  He
-      can add more later.
-\item Bob builds a circuit to each of his introduction points, and tells
-      them to wait for requests.
-\item Alice learns about Bob's service out of band (perhaps Bob told her,
-      or she found it on a website).  She retrieves the details of Bob's
-      service from the lookup service.  If Alice wants to access Bob's
-      service anonymously, she must connect to the lookup service via Tor.
-\item Alice chooses an OR as the rendezvous point (RP) for her connection to
-      Bob's service. She builds a circuit to the RP, and gives it a
-      randomly chosen ``rendezvous cookie'' to recognize Bob.
-\item Alice opens an anonymous stream to one of Bob's introduction
-      points, and gives it a message (encrypted with Bob's public key)
-      telling it about herself,
-      her RP and rendezvous cookie, and the
-      start of a DH
-      handshake. The introduction point sends the message to Bob.
-\item If Bob wants to talk to Alice, he builds a circuit to Alice's
-      RP and sends the rendezvous cookie, the second half of the DH
-      handshake, and a hash of the session
-      key they now share. By the same argument as in
-      Section~\ref{subsubsec:constructing-a-circuit}, Alice knows she
-      shares the key only with Bob.
-\item The RP connects Alice's circuit to Bob's. Note that RP can't
-      recognize Alice, Bob, or the data they transmit.
-\item Alice sends a \emph{relay begin} cell along the circuit. It
-      arrives at Bob's OP, which connects to Bob's
-      webserver.
-\item An anonymous stream has been established, and Alice and Bob
-      communicate as normal.
-\end{tightlist}
-
-When establishing an introduction point, Bob provides the onion router
-with the public key identifying his service.  Bob signs his
-messages, so others cannot usurp his introduction point
-in the future. He uses the same public key to establish the other
-introduction points for his service, and periodically refreshes his
-entry in the lookup service.
-
-The message that Alice gives
-the introduction point includes a hash of Bob's public key % to identify
-%the service, along with
-and an optional initial authorization token (the
-introduction point can do prescreening, for example to block replays). Her
-message to Bob may include an end-to-end authorization token so Bob
-can choose whether to respond.
-The authorization tokens can be used to provide selective access:
-important users can get uninterrupted access.
-%important users get tokens to ensure uninterrupted access. %to the
-%service.
-During normal situations, Bob's service might simply be offered
-directly from mirrors, while Bob gives out tokens to high-priority users. If
-the mirrors are knocked down,
-%by distributed DoS attacks or even
-%physical attack,
-those users can switch to accessing Bob's service via
-the Tor rendezvous system.
-
-Bob's introduction points are themselves subject to DoS---he must
-open many introduction points or risk such an attack.
-He can provide selected users with a current list or future schedule of
-unadvertised introduction points;
-this is most practical
-if there is a stable and large group of introduction points
-available. Bob could also give secret public keys
-for consulting the lookup service. All of these approaches
-limit exposure even when
-some selected users collude in the DoS\@.
-
-\subsection{Integration with user applications}
-
-Bob configures his onion proxy to know the local IP address and port of his
-service, a strategy for authorizing clients, and his public key. The onion
-proxy anonymously publishes a signed statement of Bob's
-public key, an expiration time, and
-the current introduction points for his service onto the lookup service,
-indexed
-by the hash of his public key.  Bob's webserver is unmodified,
-and doesn't even know that it's hidden behind the Tor network.
-
-Alice's applications also work unchanged---her client interface
-remains a SOCKS proxy.  We encode all of the necessary information
-into the fully qualified domain name (FQDN) Alice uses when establishing her
-connection. Location-hidden services use a virtual top level domain
-called {\tt .onion}: thus hostnames take the form {\tt x.y.onion} where
-{\tt x} is the authorization cookie and {\tt y} encodes the hash of
-the public key. Alice's onion proxy
-examines addresses; if they're destined for a hidden server, it decodes
-the key and starts the rendezvous as described above.
-
-\subsection{Previous rendezvous work}
-%XXXX Should this get integrated into the earlier related work section? -NM
-
-Rendezvous points in low-latency anonymity systems were first
-described for use in ISDN telephony~\cite{jerichow-jsac98,isdn-mixes}.
-Later low-latency designs used rendezvous points for hiding location
-of mobile phones and low-power location
-trackers~\cite{federrath-ih96,reed-protocols97}.  Rendezvous for
-anonymizing low-latency
-Internet connections was suggested in early Onion Routing
-work~\cite{or-ih96}, but the first published design was by Ian
-Goldberg~\cite{ian-thesis}. His design differs from
-ours in three ways. First, Goldberg suggests that Alice should manually
-hunt down a current location of the service via Gnutella; our approach
-makes lookup transparent to the user, as well as faster and more robust.
-Second, in Tor the client and server negotiate session keys
-with Diffie-Hellman, so plaintext is not exposed even at the rendezvous
-point. Third,
-our design minimizes the exposure from running the
-service, to encourage volunteers to offer introduction and rendezvous
-services. Tor's introduction points do not output any bytes to the
-clients; the rendezvous points don't know the client or the server,
-and can't read the data being transmitted. The indirection scheme is
-also designed to include authentication/authorization---if Alice doesn't
-include the right cookie with her request for service, Bob need not even
-acknowledge his existence.
-
-\section{Other design decisions}
-\label{sec:other-design}
-
-\subsection{Denial of service}
-\label{subsec:dos}
-
-Providing Tor as a public service creates many opportunities for
-denial-of-service attacks against the network.  While
-flow control and rate limiting (discussed in
-Section~\ref{subsec:congestion}) prevent users from consuming more
-bandwidth than routers are willing to provide, opportunities remain for
-users to
-consume more network resources than their fair share, or to render the
-network unusable for others.
-
-First of all, there are several CPU-consuming denial-of-service
-attacks wherein an attacker can force an OR to perform expensive
-cryptographic operations.  For example, an attacker can 
-%\emph{create} cell full of junk bytes can force an OR to perform an RSA
-%decrypt.
-%Similarly, an attacker can
-fake the start of a TLS handshake, forcing the OR to carry out its
-(comparatively expensive) half of the handshake at no real computational
-cost to the attacker.
-
-We have not yet implemented any defenses for these attacks, but several
-approaches are possible. First, ORs can
-require clients to solve a puzzle~\cite{puzzles-tls} while beginning new
-TLS handshakes or accepting \emph{create} cells.  So long as these
-tokens are easy to verify and computationally expensive to produce, this
-approach limits the attack multiplier.  Additionally, ORs can limit
-the rate at which they accept \emph{create} cells and TLS connections,
-so that
-the computational work of processing them does not drown out the
-symmetric cryptography operations that keep cells
-flowing.  This rate limiting could, however, allow an attacker
-to slow down other users when they build new circuits.
-
-% What about link-to-link rate limiting?
-
-Adversaries can also attack the Tor network's hosts and network
-links. Disrupting a single circuit or link breaks all streams passing
-along that part of the circuit. Users similarly lose service
-when a router crashes or its operator restarts it. The current
-Tor design treats such attacks as intermittent network failures, and
-depends on users and applications to respond or recover as appropriate. A
-future design could use an end-to-end TCP-like acknowledgment protocol,
-so no streams are lost unless the entry or exit point is
-disrupted. This solution would require more buffering at the network
-edges, however, and the performance and anonymity implications from this
-extra complexity still require investigation.
-
-\subsection{Exit policies and abuse}
-\label{subsec:exitpolicies}
-
-% originally, we planned to put the "users only know the hostname,
-% not the IP, but exit policies are by IP" problem here too. Not
-% worth putting in the submission, but worth thinking about putting
-% in sometime somehow. -RD
-
-Exit abuse is a serious barrier to wide-scale Tor deployment. Anonymity
-presents would-be vandals and abusers with an opportunity to hide
-the origins of their activities. Attackers can harm the Tor network by
-implicating exit servers for their abuse. Also, applications that commonly
-use IP-based authentication (such as institutional mail or webservers)
-can be fooled by the fact that anonymous connections appear to originate
-at the exit OR.
-
-We stress that Tor does not enable any new class of abuse. Spammers
-and other attackers already have access to thousands of misconfigured
-systems worldwide, and the Tor network is far from the easiest way
-to launch attacks.
-%Indeed, because of its limited
-%anonymity, Tor is probably not a good way to commit crimes.
-But because the
-onion routers can be mistaken for the originators of the abuse,
-and the volunteers who run them may not want to deal with the hassle of
-explaining anonymity networks to irate administrators, we must block or limit
-abuse through the Tor network.
-
-To mitigate abuse issues, each onion router's \emph{exit policy}
-describes to which external addresses and ports the router will
-connect. On one end of the spectrum are \emph{open exit}
-nodes that will connect anywhere. On the other end are \emph{middleman}
-nodes that only relay traffic to other Tor nodes, and \emph{private exit}
-nodes that only connect to a local host or network.  A private
-exit can allow a client to connect to a given host or
-network more securely---an external adversary cannot eavesdrop traffic
-between the private exit and the final destination, and so is less sure of
-Alice's destination and activities. Most onion routers in the current
-network function as
-\emph{restricted exits} that permit connections to the world at large,
-but prevent access to certain abuse-prone addresses and services such
-as SMTP.
-The OR might also be able to authenticate clients to
-prevent exit abuse without harming anonymity~\cite{or-discex00}.
-
-%The abuse issues on closed (e.g. military) networks are different
-%from the abuse on open networks like the Internet. While these IP-based
-%access controls are still commonplace on the Internet, on closed networks,
-%nearly all participants will be honest, and end-to-end authentication
-%can be assumed for important traffic.
-
-Many administrators use port restrictions to support only a
-limited set of services, such as HTTP, SSH, or AIM.
-This is not a complete solution, of course, since abuse opportunities for these
-protocols are still well known.
-
-We have not yet encountered any abuse in the deployed network, but if
-we do we should consider using proxies to clean traffic for certain
-protocols as it leaves the network.  For example, much abusive HTTP
-behavior (such as exploiting buffer overflows or well-known script
-vulnerabilities) can be detected in a straightforward manner.
-Similarly, one could run automatic spam filtering software (such as
-SpamAssassin) on email exiting the OR network.
-
-ORs may also rewrite exiting traffic to append
-headers or other information indicating that the traffic has passed
-through an anonymity service.  This approach is commonly used
-by email-only anonymity systems.  ORs can also
-run on servers with hostnames like {\tt anonymous} to further
-alert abuse targets to the nature of the anonymous traffic.
-
-A mixture of open and restricted exit nodes allows the most
-flexibility for volunteers running servers. But while having many
-middleman nodes provides a large and robust network,
-having only a few exit nodes reduces the number of points
-an adversary needs to monitor for traffic analysis, and places a
-greater burden on the exit nodes.  This tension can be seen in the
-Java Anon Proxy
-cascade model, wherein only one node in each cascade needs to handle
-abuse complaints---but an adversary only needs to observe the entry
-and exit of a cascade to perform traffic analysis on all that
-cascade's users. The hydra model (many entries, few exits) presents a
-different compromise: only a few exit nodes are needed, but an
-adversary needs to work harder to watch all the clients; see
-Section~\ref{sec:conclusion}.
-
-Finally, we note that exit abuse must not be dismissed as a peripheral
-issue: when a system's public image suffers, it can reduce the number
-and diversity of that system's users, and thereby reduce the anonymity
-of the system itself.  Like usability, public perception is a
-security parameter.  Sadly, preventing abuse of open exit nodes is an
-unsolved problem, and will probably remain an arms race for the
-foreseeable future.  The abuse problems faced by Princeton's CoDeeN
-project~\cite{darkside} give us a glimpse of likely issues.
-
-\subsection{Directory Servers}
-\label{subsec:dirservers}
-
-First-generation Onion Routing designs~\cite{freedom2-arch,or-jsac98} used
-in-band network status updates: each router flooded a signed statement
-to its neighbors, which propagated it onward. But anonymizing networks
-have different security goals than typical link-state routing protocols.
-For example, delays (accidental or intentional)
-that can cause different parts of the network to have different views
-of link-state and topology are not only inconvenient: they give
-attackers an opportunity to exploit differences in client knowledge.
-We also worry about attacks to deceive a
-client about the router membership list, topology, or current network
-state. Such \emph{partitioning attacks} on client knowledge help an
-adversary to efficiently deploy resources
-against a target~\cite{minion-design}.
-
-Tor uses a small group of redundant, well-known onion routers to
-track changes in network topology and node state, including keys and
-exit policies.  Each such \emph{directory server} acts as an HTTP
-server, so clients can fetch current network state
-and router lists, and so other ORs can upload
-state information.  Onion routers periodically publish signed
-statements of their state to each directory server. The directory servers
-combine this information with their own views of network liveness,
-and generate a signed description (a \emph{directory}) of the entire
-network state. Client software is
-pre-loaded with a list of the directory servers and their keys,
-to bootstrap each client's view of the network.
-% XXX this means that clients will be forced to upgrade as the
-% XXX dirservers change or get compromised. argue that this is ok.
-
-When a directory server receives a signed statement for an OR, it
-checks whether the OR's identity key is recognized. Directory
-servers do not advertise unrecognized ORs---if they did,
-an adversary could take over the network by creating many
-servers~\cite{sybil}. Instead, new nodes must be approved by the
-directory
-server administrator before they are included. Mechanisms for automated
-node approval are an area of active research, and are discussed more
-in Section~\ref{sec:maintaining-anonymity}.
-
-Of course, a variety of attacks remain. An adversary who controls
-a directory server can track clients by providing them different
-information---perhaps by listing only nodes under its control, or by
-informing only certain clients about a given node. Even an external
-adversary can exploit differences in client knowledge: clients who use
-a node listed on one directory server but not the others are vulnerable.
-
-Thus these directory servers must be synchronized and redundant, so
-that they can agree on a common directory.  Clients should only trust
-this directory if it is signed by a threshold of the directory
-servers.
-
-The directory servers in Tor are modeled after those in
-Mixminion~\cite{minion-design}, but our situation is easier. First,
-we make the
-simplifying assumption that all participants agree on the set of
-directory servers. Second, while Mixminion needs to predict node
-behavior, Tor only needs a threshold consensus of the current
-state of the network. Third, we assume that we can fall back to the
-human administrators to discover and resolve problems when a consensus
-directory cannot be reached. Since there are relatively few directory
-servers (currently 3, but we expect as many as 9 as the network scales),
-we can afford operations like broadcast to simplify the consensus-building
-protocol.
-
-To avoid attacks where a router connects to all the directory servers
-but refuses to relay traffic from other routers, the directory servers
-must also build circuits and use them to anonymously test router
-reliability~\cite{mix-acc}. Unfortunately, this defense is not yet
-designed or
-implemented.
-
-Using directory servers is simpler and more flexible than flooding.
-Flooding is expensive, and complicates the analysis when we
-start experimenting with non-clique network topologies. Signed
-directories can be cached by other
-onion routers,
-so directory servers are not a performance
-bottleneck when we have many users, and do not aid traffic analysis by
-forcing clients to announce their existence to any
-central point.
-
-\section{Attacks and Defenses}
-\label{sec:attacks}
-
-Below we summarize a variety of attacks, and discuss how well our
-design withstands them.\\
-
-\noindent{\large\bf Passive attacks}\\
-\emph{Observing user traffic patterns.} Observing a user's connection
-will not reveal her destination or data, but it will
-reveal traffic patterns (both sent and received). Profiling via user
-connection patterns requires further processing, because multiple
-application streams may be operating simultaneously or in series over
-a single circuit.
-
-\emph{Observing user content.} While content at the user end is encrypted,
-connections to responders may not be (indeed, the responding website
-itself may be hostile). While filtering content is not a primary goal
-of Onion Routing, Tor can directly use Privoxy and related
-filtering services to anonymize application data streams.
-
-\emph{Option distinguishability.} We allow clients to choose
-configuration options. For example, clients concerned about request
-linkability should rotate circuits more often than those concerned
-about traceability. Allowing choice may attract users with different 
-%There is economic incentive to attract users by
-%allowing this choice; 
-needs; but clients who are
-in the minority may lose more anonymity by appearing distinct than they
-gain by optimizing their behavior~\cite{econymics}.
-
-\emph{End-to-end timing correlation.}  Tor only minimally hides
-such correlations. An attacker watching patterns of
-traffic at the initiator and the responder will be
-able to confirm the correspondence with high probability. The
-greatest protection currently available against such confirmation is to hide
-the connection between the onion proxy and the first Tor node,
-by running the OP on the Tor node or behind a firewall. This approach
-requires an observer to separate traffic originating at the onion
-router from traffic passing through it: a global observer can do this,
-but it might be beyond a limited observer's capabilities.
-
-\emph{End-to-end size correlation.} Simple packet counting
-will also be effective in confirming
-endpoints of a stream. However, even without padding, we may have some
-limited protection: the leaky pipe topology means different numbers
-of packets may enter one end of a circuit than exit at the other.
-
-\emph{Website fingerprinting.} All the effective passive
-attacks above are traffic confirmation attacks,
-which puts them outside our design goals. There is also
-a passive traffic analysis attack that is potentially effective.
-Rather than searching exit connections for timing and volume
-correlations, the adversary may build up a database of
-``fingerprints'' containing file sizes and access patterns for
-targeted websites. He can later confirm a user's connection to a given
-site simply by consulting the database. This attack has
-been shown to be effective against SafeWeb~\cite{hintz-pet02}.
-It may be less effective against Tor, since
-streams are multiplexed within the same circuit, and
-fingerprinting will be limited to
-the granularity of cells (currently 512 bytes). Additional
-defenses could include
-larger cell sizes, padding schemes to group websites
-into large sets, and link
-padding or long-range dummies.\footnote{Note that this fingerprinting
-attack should not be confused with the much more complicated latency
-attacks of~\cite{back01}, which require a fingerprint of the latencies
-of all circuits through the network, combined with those from the
-network edges to the target user and the responder website.}\\
-
-\noindent{\large\bf Active attacks}\\
-\emph{Compromise keys.} An attacker who learns the TLS session key can
-see control cells and encrypted relay cells on every circuit on that
-connection; learning a circuit
-session key lets him unwrap one layer of the encryption. An attacker
-who learns an OR's TLS private key can impersonate that OR for the TLS
-key's lifetime, but he must
-also learn the onion key to decrypt \emph{create} cells (and because of
-perfect forward secrecy, he cannot hijack already established circuits
-without also compromising their session keys). Periodic key rotation
-limits the window of opportunity for these attacks. On the other hand,
-an attacker who learns a node's identity key can replace that node
-indefinitely by sending new forged descriptors to the directory servers.
-
-\emph{Iterated compromise.} A roving adversary who can
-compromise ORs (by system intrusion, legal coercion, or extralegal
-coercion) could march down the circuit compromising the
-nodes until he reaches the end.  Unless the adversary can complete
-this attack within the lifetime of the circuit, however, the ORs
-will have discarded the necessary information before the attack can
-be completed.  (Thanks to the perfect forward secrecy of session
-keys, the attacker cannot force nodes to decrypt recorded
-traffic once the circuits have been closed.)  Additionally, building
-circuits that cross jurisdictions can make legal coercion
-harder---this phenomenon is commonly called ``jurisdictional
-arbitrage.'' The Java Anon Proxy project recently experienced the
-need for this approach, when
-a German court forced them to add a backdoor to
-their nodes~\cite{jap-backdoor}.
-
-\emph{Run a recipient.} An adversary running a webserver
-trivially learns the timing patterns of users connecting to it, and
-can introduce arbitrary patterns in its responses.
-End-to-end attacks become easier: if the adversary can induce
-users to connect to his webserver (perhaps by advertising
-content targeted to those users), he now holds one end of their
-connection.  There is also a danger that application
-protocols and associated programs can be induced to reveal information
-about the initiator. Tor depends on Privoxy and similar protocol cleaners
-to solve this latter problem.
-
-\emph{Run an onion proxy.} It is expected that end users will
-nearly always run their own local onion proxy. However, in some
-settings, it may be necessary for the proxy to run
-remotely---typically, in institutions that want
-to monitor the activity of those connecting to the proxy.
-Compromising an onion proxy compromises all future connections
-through it.
-
-\emph{DoS non-observed nodes.} An observer who can only watch some
-of the Tor network can increase the value of this traffic
-by attacking non-observed nodes to shut them down, reduce
-their reliability, or persuade users that they are not trustworthy.
-The best defense here is robustness.
-
-\emph{Run a hostile OR.}  In addition to being a local observer,
-an isolated hostile node can create circuits through itself, or alter
-traffic patterns to affect traffic at other nodes. Nonetheless, a hostile
-node must be immediately adjacent to both endpoints to compromise the
-anonymity of a circuit. If an adversary can
-run multiple ORs, and can persuade the directory servers
-that those ORs are trustworthy and independent, then occasionally
-some user will choose one of those ORs for the start and another
-as the end of a circuit. If an adversary
-controls $m>1$ of $N$ nodes, he can correlate at most
-$\left(\frac{m}{N}\right)^2$ of the traffic---although an
-adversary
-could still attract a disproportionately large amount of traffic
-by running an OR with a permissive exit policy, or by
-degrading the reliability of other routers.
-
-\emph{Introduce timing into messages.} This is simply a stronger
-version of passive timing attacks already discussed earlier.
-
-\emph{Tagging attacks.} A hostile node could ``tag'' a
-cell by altering it. If the
-stream were, for example, an unencrypted request to a Web site,
-the garbled content coming out at the appropriate time would confirm
-the association. However, integrity checks on cells prevent
-this attack.
-
-\emph{Replace contents of unauthenticated protocols.}  When
-relaying an unauthenticated protocol like HTTP, a hostile exit node
-can impersonate the target server. Clients
-should prefer protocols with end-to-end authentication.
-
-\emph{Replay attacks.} Some anonymity protocols are vulnerable
-to replay attacks.  Tor is not; replaying one side of a handshake
-will result in a different negotiated session key, and so the rest
-of the recorded session can't be used.
-
-\emph{Smear attacks.} An attacker could use the Tor network for
-socially disapproved acts, to bring the
-network into disrepute and get its operators to shut it down.
-Exit policies reduce the possibilities for abuse, but
-ultimately the network requires volunteers who can tolerate
-some political heat.
-
-\emph{Distribute hostile code.} An attacker could trick users
-into running subverted Tor software that did not, in fact, anonymize
-their connections---or worse, could trick ORs into running weakened
-software that provided users with less anonymity.  We address this
-problem (but do not solve it completely) by signing all Tor releases
-with an official public key, and including an entry in the directory
-that lists which versions are currently believed to be secure.  To
-prevent an attacker from subverting the official release itself
-(through threats, bribery, or insider attacks), we provide all
-releases in source code form, encourage source audits, and
-frequently warn our users never to trust any software (even from
-us) that comes without source.\\
-
-\noindent{\large\bf Directory attacks}\\
-\emph{Destroy directory servers.}  If a few directory
-servers disappear, the others still decide on a valid
-directory.  So long as any directory servers remain in operation,
-they will still broadcast their views of the network and generate a
-consensus directory.  (If more than half are destroyed, this
-directory will not, however, have enough signatures for clients to
-use it automatically; human intervention will be necessary for
-clients to decide whether to trust the resulting directory.)
-
-\emph{Subvert a directory server.}  By taking over a directory server,
-an attacker can partially influence the final directory.  Since ORs
-are included or excluded by majority vote, the corrupt directory can
-at worst cast a tie-breaking vote to decide whether to include
-marginal ORs.  It remains to be seen how often such marginal cases
-occur in practice.
-
-\emph{Subvert a majority of directory servers.} An adversary who controls
-more than half the directory servers can include as many compromised
-ORs in the final directory as he wishes. We must ensure that directory
-server operators are independent and attack-resistant.
-
-\emph{Encourage directory server dissent.}  The directory
-agreement protocol assumes that directory server operators agree on
-the set of directory servers.  An adversary who can persuade some
-of the directory server operators to distrust one another could
-split the quorum into mutually hostile camps, thus partitioning
-users based on which directory they use.  Tor does not address
-this attack.
-
-\emph{Trick the directory servers into listing a hostile OR.}
-Our threat model explicitly assumes directory server operators will
-be able to filter out most hostile ORs.
-% If this is not true, an
-% attacker can flood the directory with compromised servers.
-
-\emph{Convince the directories that a malfunctioning OR is
-working.}  In the current Tor implementation, directory servers
-assume that an OR is running correctly if they can start a TLS
-connection to it.  A hostile OR could easily subvert this test by
-accepting TLS connections from ORs but ignoring all cells. Directory
-servers must actively test ORs by building circuits and streams as
-appropriate.  The tradeoffs of a similar approach are discussed
-in~\cite{mix-acc}.\\
-
-\noindent{\large\bf Attacks against rendezvous points}\\
-\emph{Make many introduction requests.}  An attacker could
-try to deny Bob service by flooding his introduction points with
-requests.  Because the introduction points can block requests that
-lack authorization tokens, however, Bob can restrict the volume of
-requests he receives, or require a certain amount of computation for
-every request he receives.
-
-\emph{Attack an introduction point.} An attacker could
-disrupt a location-hidden service by disabling its introduction
-points.  But because a service's identity is attached to its public
-key, the service can simply re-advertise
-itself at a different introduction point. Advertisements can also be
-done secretly so that only high-priority clients know the address of
-Bob's introduction points or so that different clients know of different
-introduction points. This forces the attacker to disable all possible
-introduction points.
-
-\emph{Compromise an introduction point.} An attacker who controls
-Bob's introduction point can flood Bob with
-introduction requests, or prevent valid introduction requests from
-reaching him. Bob can notice a flood, and close the circuit.  To notice
-blocking of valid requests, however, he should periodically test the
-introduction point by sending rendezvous requests and making
-sure he receives them.
-
-\emph{Compromise a rendezvous point.}  A rendezvous
-point is no more sensitive than any other OR on
-a circuit, since all data passing through the rendezvous is encrypted
-with a session key shared by Alice and Bob.
-
-\section{Early experiences: Tor in the Wild}
-\label{sec:in-the-wild}
-
-As of mid-May 2004, the Tor network consists of 32 nodes
-(24 in the US, 8 in Europe), and more are joining each week as the code
-matures. (For comparison, the current remailer network
-has about 40 nodes.) % We haven't asked PlanetLab to provide
-%Tor nodes, since their AUP wouldn't allow exit nodes (see
-%also~\cite{darkside}) and because we aim to build a long-term community of
-%node operators and developers.}
-Each node has at least a 768Kb/768Kb connection, and
-many have 10Mb. The number of users varies (and of course, it's hard to
-tell for sure), but we sometimes have several hundred users---administrators at
-several companies have begun sending their entire departments' web
-traffic through Tor, to block other divisions of
-their company from reading their traffic. Tor users have reported using
-the network for web browsing, FTP, IRC, AIM, Kazaa, SSH, and
-recipient-anonymous email via rendezvous points. One user has anonymously
-set up a Wiki as a hidden service, where other users anonymously publish
-the addresses of their hidden services.
-
-Each Tor node currently processes roughly 800,000 relay
-cells (a bit under half a gigabyte) per week. On average, about 80\%
-of each 498-byte payload is full for cells going back to the client,
-whereas about 40\% is full for cells coming from the client. (The difference
-arises because most of the network's traffic is web browsing.) Interactive
-traffic like SSH brings down the average a lot---once we have more
-experience, and assuming we can resolve the anonymity issues, we may
-partition traffic into two relay cell sizes: one to handle
-bulk traffic and one for interactive traffic.
-
-Based in part on our restrictive default exit policy (we
-reject SMTP requests) and our low profile, we have had no abuse
-issues since the network was deployed in October
-2003. Our slow growth rate gives us time to add features,
-resolve bugs, and get a feel for what users actually want from an
-anonymity system.  Even though having more users would bolster our
-anonymity sets, we are not eager to attract the Kazaa or warez
-communities---we feel that we must build a reputation for privacy, human
-rights, research, and other socially laudable activities.
-
-As for performance, profiling shows that Tor spends almost
-all its CPU time in AES, which is fast.  Current latency is attributable
-to two factors. First, network latency is critical: we are
-intentionally bouncing traffic around the world several times. Second,
-our end-to-end congestion control algorithm focuses on protecting
-volunteer servers from accidental DoS rather than on optimizing
-performance. % Right now the first $500 \times 500\mbox{B}=250\mbox{KB}$
-%of the stream arrives
-%quickly, and after that throughput depends on the rate that \emph{relay
-%sendme} acknowledgments arrive.
-To quantify these effects, we did some informal tests using a network of 4
-nodes on the same machine (a heavily loaded 1GHz Athlon). We downloaded a 60
-megabyte file from {\tt debian.org} every 30 minutes for 54 hours (108 sample
-points). It arrived in about 300 seconds on average, compared to 210s for a
-direct download. We ran a similar test on the production Tor network,
-fetching the front page of {\tt cnn.com} (55 kilobytes):
-% every 20 seconds for 8952 data points
-while a direct
-download consistently took about 0.3s, the performance through Tor varied.
-Some downloads were as fast as 0.4s, with a median at 2.8s, and
-90\% finishing within 5.3s.  It seems that as the network expands, the chance
-of building a slow circuit (one that includes a slow or heavily loaded node
-or link) is increasing.  On the other hand, as our users remain satisfied
-with this increased latency, we can address our performance incrementally as we
-proceed with development. %\footnote{For example, we have just begun pushing
-%a pipelining patch to the production network that seems to decrease
-%latency for medium-to-large files; we will present revised benchmarks
-%as they become available.}
-
-%With the current network's topology and load, users can typically get 1-2
-%megabits sustained transfer rate, which is good enough for now.
-%Indeed, the Tor
-%design aims foremost to provide a security research platform; performance
-%only needs to be sufficient to retain users~\cite{econymics,back01}.
-%We can tweak the congestion control
-%parameters to provide faster throughput at the cost of
-%larger buffers at each node; adding the heuristics mentioned in
-%Section~\ref{subsec:rate-limit} to favor low-volume
-%streams may also help. More research remains to find the
-%right balance.
-% We should say _HOW MUCH_ latency there is in these cases. -NM
-
-%performs badly on lossy networks. may need airhook or something else as
-%transport alternative?
-
-Although Tor's clique topology and full-visibility directories present
-scaling problems, we still expect the network to support a few hundred
-nodes and maybe 10,000 users before we're forced to become
-more distributed. With luck, the experience we gain running the current
-topology will help us choose among alternatives when the time comes.
-
-\section{Open Questions in Low-latency Anonymity}
-\label{sec:maintaining-anonymity}
-
-In addition to the non-goals in
-Section~\ref{subsec:non-goals}, many questions must be solved
-before we can be confident of Tor's security.
-
-Many of these open issues are questions of balance. For example,
-how often should users rotate to fresh circuits? Frequent rotation
-is inefficient, expensive, and may lead to intersection attacks and
-predecessor attacks~\cite{wright03}, but infrequent rotation makes the
-user's traffic linkable. Besides opening fresh circuits, clients can
-also exit from the middle of the circuit,
-or truncate and re-extend the circuit. More analysis is
-needed to determine the proper tradeoff.
-
-%% Duplicated by 'Better directory distribution' in section 9.
-%
-%A similar question surrounds timing of directory operations: how often
-%should directories be updated?  Clients that update infrequently receive
-%an inaccurate picture of the network, but frequent updates can overload
-%the directory servers. More generally, we must find more
-%decentralized yet practical ways to distribute up-to-date snapshots of
-%network status without introducing new attacks.
-
-How should we choose path lengths? If Alice always uses two hops,
-then both ORs can be certain that by colluding they will learn about
-Alice and Bob. In our current approach, Alice always chooses at least
-three nodes unrelated to herself and her destination.
-%% This point is subtle, but not IMO necessary.  Anybody who thinks
-%% about it will see that it's implied by the above sentence; anybody
-%% who doesn't think about it is safe in his ignorance.
-%
-%Thus normally she chooses
-%three nodes, but if she is running an OR and her destination is on an OR,
-%she uses five.
-Should Alice choose a random path length (e.g.~from a geometric
-distribution) to foil an attacker who
-uses timing to learn that he is the fifth hop and thus concludes that
-both Alice and the responder are running ORs?
-
-Throughout this paper, we have assumed that end-to-end traffic
-confirmation will immediately and automatically defeat a low-latency
-anonymity system. Even high-latency anonymity systems can be
-vulnerable to end-to-end traffic confirmation, if the traffic volumes
-are high enough, and if users' habits are sufficiently
-distinct~\cite{statistical-disclosure,limits-open}. Can anything be
-done to
-make low-latency systems resist these attacks as well as high-latency
-systems? Tor already makes some effort to conceal the starts and ends of
-streams by wrapping long-range control commands in identical-looking
-relay cells. Link padding could frustrate passive observers who count
-packets; long-range padding could work against observers who own the
-first hop in a circuit. But more research remains to find an efficient
-and practical approach. Volunteers prefer not to run constant-bandwidth
-padding; but no convincing traffic shaping approach has been
-specified. Recent work on long-range padding~\cite{defensive-dropping}
-shows promise. One could also try to reduce correlation in packet timing
-by batching and re-ordering packets, but it is unclear whether this could
-improve anonymity without introducing so much latency as to render the
-network unusable.
-
-A cascade topology may better defend against traffic confirmation by
-aggregating users, and making padding and
-mixing more affordable.  Does the hydra topology (many input nodes,
-few output nodes) work better against some adversaries? Are we going
-to get a hydra anyway because most nodes will be middleman nodes?
-
-Common wisdom suggests that Alice should run her own OR for best
-anonymity, because traffic coming from her node could plausibly have
-come from elsewhere. How much mixing does this approach need?  Is it
-immediately beneficial because of real-world adversaries that can't
-observe Alice's router, but can run routers of their own?
-
-To scale to many users, and to prevent an attacker from observing the
-whole network, it may be necessary
-to support far more servers than Tor currently anticipates.
-This introduces several issues.  First, if approval by a central set
-of directory servers is no longer feasible, what mechanism should be used
-to prevent adversaries from signing up many colluding servers? Second,
-if clients can no longer have a complete picture of the network,
-how can they perform discovery while preventing attackers from
-manipulating or exploiting gaps in their knowledge?  Third, if there
-are too many servers for every server to constantly communicate with
-every other, which non-clique topology should the network use?
-(Restricted-route topologies promise comparable anonymity with better
-scalability~\cite{danezis:pet2003}, but whatever topology we choose, we
-need some way to keep attackers from manipulating their position within
-it~\cite{casc-rep}.) Fourth, if no central authority is tracking
-server reliability, how do we stop unreliable servers from making
-the network unusable?  Fifth, do clients receive so much anonymity
-from running their own ORs that we should expect them all to do
-so~\cite{econymics}, or do we need another incentive structure to
-motivate them?  Tarzan and MorphMix present possible solutions.
-
-% advogato, captcha
-
-When a Tor node goes down, all its circuits (and thus streams) must break.
-Will users abandon the system because of this brittleness? How well
-does the method in Section~\ref{subsec:dos} allow streams to survive
-node failure? If affected users rebuild circuits immediately, how much
-anonymity is lost? It seems the problem is even worse in a peer-to-peer
-environment---such systems don't yet provide an incentive for peers to
-stay connected when they're done retrieving content, so we would expect
-a higher churn rate.
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-
-\section{Future Directions}
-\label{sec:conclusion}
-
-Tor brings together many innovations into a unified deployable system. The
-next immediate steps include:
-
-\emph{Scalability:} Tor's emphasis on deployability and design simplicity
-has led us to adopt a clique topology, semi-centralized
-directories, and a full-network-visibility model for client
-knowledge. These properties will not scale past a few hundred servers.
-Section~\ref{sec:maintaining-anonymity} describes some promising
-approaches, but more deployment experience will be helpful in learning
-the relative importance of these bottlenecks.
-
-\emph{Bandwidth classes:} This paper assumes that all ORs have
-good bandwidth and latency. We should instead adopt the MorphMix model,
-where nodes advertise their bandwidth level (DSL, T1, T3), and
-Alice avoids bottlenecks by choosing nodes that match or
-exceed her bandwidth. In this way DSL users can usefully join the Tor
-network.
-
-\emph{Incentives:} Volunteers who run nodes are rewarded with publicity
-and possibly better anonymity~\cite{econymics}. More nodes means increased
-scalability, and more users can mean more anonymity. We need to continue
-examining the incentive structures for participating in Tor. Further,
-we need to explore more approaches to limiting abuse, and understand
-why most people don't bother using privacy systems.
-
-\emph{Cover traffic:} Currently Tor omits cover traffic---its costs
-in performance and bandwidth are clear but its security benefits are
-not well understood. We must pursue more research on link-level cover
-traffic and long-range cover traffic to determine whether some simple padding
-method offers provable protection against our chosen adversary.
-
-%%\emph{Offer two relay cell sizes:} Traffic on the Internet tends to be
-%%large for bulk transfers and small for interactive traffic. One cell
-%%size cannot be optimal for both types of traffic.
-% This should go in the spec and todo, but not the paper yet. -RD
-
-\emph{Caching at exit nodes:} Perhaps each exit node should run a
-caching web proxy~\cite{shsm03}, to improve anonymity for cached pages
-(Alice's request never
-leaves the Tor network), to improve speed, and to reduce bandwidth cost.
-On the other hand, forward security is weakened because caches
-constitute a record of retrieved files.  We must find the right
-balance between usability and security.
-
-\emph{Better directory distribution:}
-Clients currently download a description of
-the entire network every 15 minutes. As the state grows larger
-and clients more numerous, we may need a solution in which
-clients receive incremental updates to directory state.
-More generally, we must find more
-scalable yet practical ways to distribute up-to-date snapshots of
-network status without introducing new attacks.
-
-\emph{Further specification review:} Our public
-byte-level specification~\cite{tor-spec} needs
-external review.  We hope that as Tor
-is deployed, more people will examine its
-specification.
-
-\emph{Multisystem interoperability:} We are currently working with the
-designer of MorphMix to unify the specification and implementation of
-the common elements of our two systems. So far, this seems
-to be relatively straightforward.  Interoperability will allow testing
-and direct comparison of the two designs for trust and scalability.
-
-\emph{Wider-scale deployment:} The original goal of Tor was to
-gain experience in deploying an anonymizing overlay network, and
-learn from having actual users.  We are now at a point in design
-and development where we can start deploying a wider network.  Once
-we have many actual users, we will doubtlessly be better
-able to evaluate some of our design decisions, including our
-robustness/latency tradeoffs, our performance tradeoffs (including
-cell size), our abuse-prevention mechanisms, and
-our overall usability.
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-
-%% commented out for anonymous submission
-\section*{Acknowledgments}
- We thank Peter Palfrader, Geoff Goodell, Adam Shostack, Joseph Sokol-Margolis,
-   John Bashinski, and Zack Brown
-   for editing and comments;
- Matej Pfajfar, Andrei Serjantov, Marc Rennhard for design discussions;
- Bram Cohen for congestion control discussions;
- Adam Back for suggesting telescoping circuits; and
- Cathy Meadows for formal analysis of the \emph{extend} protocol.
- This work has been supported by ONR and DARPA.
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-
-\bibliographystyle{latex8}
-\bibliography{tor-design}
-
-\end{document}
-
-% Style guide:
-%     U.S. spelling
-%     avoid contractions (it's, can't, etc.)
-%     prefer ``for example'' or ``such as'' to e.g.
-%     prefer ``that is'' to i.e.
-%     'mix', 'mixes' (as noun)
-%     'mix-net'
-%     'mix', 'mixing' (as verb)
-%     'middleman'  [Not with a hyphen; the hyphen has been optional
-%         since Middle English.]
-%     'nymserver'
-%     'Cypherpunk', 'Cypherpunks', 'Cypherpunk remailer'
-%     'Onion Routing design', 'onion router' [note capitalization]
-%     'SOCKS'
-%     Try not to use \cite as a noun.
-%     'Authorizating' sounds great, but it isn't a word.
-%     'First, second, third', not 'Firstly, secondly, thirdly'.
-%     'circuit', not 'channel'
-%     Typography: no space on either side of an em dash---ever.
-%     Hyphens are for multi-part words; en dashs imply movement or
-%        opposition (The Alice--Bob connection); and em dashes are
-%        for punctuation---like that.
-%     A relay cell; a control cell; a \emph{create} cell; a
-%     \emph{relay truncated} cell.  Never ``a \emph{relay truncated}.''
-%
-%     'Substitute ``Damn'' every time you're inclined to write ``very;'' your
-%     editor will delete it and the writing will be just as it should be.'
-%     -- Mark Twain

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-%    \documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
-%    \usepackage{usenix-2e}
-% and put {\rm ....} around the author names.
-%
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-% definitions, arranged to do a better job of matching the USENIX
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-\pagestyle{empty}
-
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-% Usenix titles are in 14-point bold type, with no date, and with no
-% change in the empty page headers.  The whol author section is 12 point
-% italic--- you must use {\rm } around the actual author names to get
-% them in roman.
-%
-\def\maketitle{\par
- \begingroup
-   \renewcommand\thefootnote{\fnsymbol{footnote}}%
-   \def\@makefnmark{\hbox to\z@{$\m@th^{\@thefnmark}$\hss}}%
-    \long\def\@makefntext##1{\parindent 1em\noindent
-            \hbox to1.8em{\hss$\m@th^{\@thefnmark}$}##1}%
-   \if@twocolumn
-     \twocolumn[\@maketitle]%
-     \else \newpage
-     \global\@topnum\z@
-     \@maketitle \fi\@thanks
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- \setcounter{footnote}{0}%
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- \gdef\@thanks{}\gdef\@author{}\gdef\@title{}\let\thanks\relax}
-
-\def\@maketitle{\newpage
- \vbox to 2.5in{
- \vspace*{\fill}
- \vskip 2em
- \begin{center}%
-  {\Large\bf \@title \par}%
-  \vskip 0.375in minus 0.300in
-  {\large\it
-   \lineskip .5em
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-{\large\bf \abstractname\vspace{-.5em}\vspace{\z@}}%
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-\def\endabstract{}
-
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-%
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-    -.2ex}{2.3ex plus.2ex}{\reset@font\large\bf}}

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doc/roadmaps/roadmap-2007.tex

@@ -1,690 +0,0 @@
-\documentclass{article}
-
-\usepackage{url}
-
-\newenvironment{tightlist}{\begin{list}{$\bullet$}{
-  \setlength{\itemsep}{0mm}
-    \setlength{\parsep}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\labelsep}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\labelwidth}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\topsep}{0mm}
-    }}{\end{list}}
-\newcommand{\tmp}[1]{{\bf #1} [......] \\}
-\newcommand{\plan}[1]{ {\bf (#1)}}
-
-\begin{document}
-
-\title{Tor Development Roadmap: Wishlist for Nov 2006--Dec 2007}
-\author{Roger Dingledine \and Nick Mathewson \and Shava Nerad}
-
-\maketitle
-\pagestyle{plain}
-
-% TO DO:
-%   add cites
-%   add time estimates
-
-
-\section{Introduction}
-%Hi, Roger!  Hi, Shava.  This paragraph should get deleted soon.  Right now,
-%this document goes into about as much detail as I'd like to go into for a
-%technical audience, since that's the audience I know best.  It doesn't have
-%time estimates everywhere.  It isn't well prioritized, and it doesn't
-%distinguish well between things that need lots of research and things that
-%don't.  The breakdowns don't all make sense.  There are lots of things where
-%I don't make it clear how they fit into larger goals, and lots of larger
-%goals that don't break down into little things. It isn't all stuff we can do
-%for sure, and it isn't even all stuff we can do for sure in 2007.  The
-%tmp\{\} macro indicates stuff I haven't said enough about.  That said, here
-%plangoes...
-
-Tor (the software) and Tor (the overall software/network/support/document
-suite) are now experiencing all the crises of success.  Over the next year,
-we're probably going to grow more in terms of users, developers, and funding
-than before.  This gives us the opportunity to perform long-neglected
-maintenance tasks.
-
-\section{Code and design infrastructure}
-
-\subsection{Protocol revision}
-To maintain backward compatibility, we've postponed major protocol
-changes and redesigns for a long time.  Because of this, there are a number
-of sensible revisions we've been putting off until we could deploy several of
-them at once.  To do each of these, we first need to discuss design
-alternatives with other cryptographers and outside collaborators to
-make sure that our choices are secure.
-
-First of all, our protocol needs better {\bf versioning support} so that we
-can make backward-incompatible changes to our core protocol.  There are
-difficult anonymity issues here, since many naive designs would make it easy
-to tell clients apart (and then track them) based on their supported versions.
-
-With protocol versioning support would come the ability to {\bf future-proof
-  our ciphersuites}.  For example, not only our OR protocol, but also our
-directory protocol, is pretty firmly tied to the SHA-1 hash function, which
-though not yet known to be insecure for our purposes, has begun to show
-its age.  We should
-remove assumptions throughout our design based on the assumption that public
-keys, secret keys, or digests will remain any particular size indefinitely.
-
-Our OR {\bf authentication protocol}, though provably
-secure\cite{tap:pet2006}, relies more on particular aspects of RSA and our
-implementation thereof than we had initially believed.  To future-proof
-against changes, we should replace it with a less delicate approach.
-
-\plan{For all the above: 2 person-months to specify, spread over several
-  months with time for interaction with external participants.  One
-  person-month to implement.  Start specifying in early 2007.}
-
-We might design a {\bf stream migration} feature so that streams tunneled
-over Tor could be more resilient to dropped connections and changed IPs.
-\plan{Not in 2007.}
-
-A new protocol could support {\bf multiple cell sizes}.  Right now, all data
-passes through the Tor network divided into 512-byte cells.  This is
-efficient for high-bandwidth protocols, but inefficient for protocols
-like SSH or AIM that send information in small chunks.  Of course, we need to
-investigate the extent to which multiple sizes could make it easier for an
-adversary to fingerprint a traffic pattern. \plan{Not in 2007.}
-
-As a part of our design, we should investigate possible {\bf cipher modes}
-other than counter mode.  For example, a mode with built-in integrity
-checking, error propagation, and random access could simplify our protocol
-significantly.  Sadly, many of these are patented and unavailable for us.
-\plan{Not in 2007.}
-
-\subsection{Scalability}
-
-\subsubsection{Improved directory efficiency}
-Right now, clients download a statement of the {\bf network status} made by
-each directory authority.  We could reduce network bandwidth significantly by
-having the authorities jointly sign a statement reflecting their vote on the
-current network status.  This would save clients up to 160K per hour, and
-make their view of the network more uniform.  Of course, we'd need to make
-sure the voting process was secure and resilient to failures in the
-network.\plan{Must do; specify in 2006. 2 weeks to specify, 3-4 weeks to
-  implement.}
-
-We should {\bf shorten router descriptors}, since the current format includes
-a great deal of information that's only of interest to the directory
-authorities, and not of interest to clients.  We can do this by having each
-router upload a short-form and a long-form signed descriptor, and having
-clients download only the short form.  Even a naive version of this would
-save about 40\% of the bandwidth currently spent by clients downloading
-descriptors.\plan{Must do; specify in 2006. 3-4 weeks.}
-
-We should {\bf have routers upload their descriptors even less often}, so
-that clients do not need to download replacements every 18 hours whether any
-information has changed or not.  (As of Tor 0.1.2.3-alpha, clients tolerate
-routers that don't upload often, but routers still upload at least every 18
-hours to support older clients.) \plan{Must do, but not until 0.1.1.x is
-deprecated in mid 2007. 1 week.}
-
-\subsubsection{Non-clique topology}
-Our current network design achieves a certain amount of its anonymity by
-making clients act like each other through the simple expedient of making
-sure that all clients know all servers, and that any server can talk to any
-other server.  But as the number of servers increases to serve an
-ever-greater number of clients, these assumptions become impractical.
-
-At worst, if these scalability issues become troubling before a solution is
-found, we can design and build a solution to {\bf split the network into
-multiple slices} until a better solution comes along.  This is not ideal,
-since rather than looking like all other users from a point of view of path
-selection, users would ``only'' look like 200,000--300,000 other
-users.\plan{Not unless needed.}
-
-We are in the process of designing {\bf improved schemes for network
-  scalability}.  Some approaches focus on limiting what an adversary can know
-about what a user knows; others focus on reducing the extent to which an
-adversary can exploit this knowledge.  These are currently in their infancy,
-and will probably not be needed in 2007, but they must be designed in 2007 if
-they are to be deployed in 2008.\plan{Design in 2007; unknown difficulty.
-  Write a paper.}
-
-\subsubsection{Relay incentives}
-To support more users on the network, we need to get more servers.  So far,
-we've relied on volunteerism to attract server operators, and so far it's
-served us well.  But in the long run, we need to {\bf design incentives for
-  users to run servers} and relay traffic for others.  Most obviously, we
-could try to build the network so that servers offered improved service for
-other servers, but we would need to do so without weakening anonymity and
-making it obvious which connections originate from users running servers.  We
-have some preliminary designs~\cite{incentives-txt,tor-challenges},
-but need to perform
-some more research to make sure they would be safe and effective.\plan{Write
-  a draft paper; 2 person-months.}
-
-\subsection{Portability}
-Our {\bf Windows implementation}, though much improved, continues to lag
-behind Unix and Mac OS X, especially when running as a server.  We hope to
-merge promising patches from Mike Chiussi to address this point, and bring
-Windows performance on par with other platforms.\plan{Do in 2007; 1.5 months
-  to integrate not counting Mike's work.}
-
-We should have {\bf better support for portable devices}, including modes of
-operation that require less RAM, and that write to disk less frequently (to
-avoid wearing out flash RAM).\plan{Optional; 2 weeks.}
-
-We should {\bf stop using socketpair on Windows}; instead, we can use
-in-memory structures to communicate between cpuworkers and the main thread,
-and between connections.\plan{Optional; 1 week.}
-
-\subsection{Performance: resource usage}
-We've been working on {\bf using less RAM}, especially on servers.  This has
-paid off a lot for directory caches in the 0.1.2, which in some cases are
-using 90\% less memory than they used to require.  But we can do better,
-especially in the area around our buffer management algorithms, by using an
-approach more like the BSD and Linux kernels use instead of our current ring
-buffer approach.  (For OR connections, we can just use queues of cell-sized
-chunks produced with a specialized allocator.)  This could potentially save
-around 25 to 50\% of the memory currently allocated for network buffers, and
-make Tor a more attractive proposition for restricted-memory environments
-like old computers, mobile devices, and the like.\plan{Do in 2007; 2-3 weeks
-  plus one week measurement.}
-
-We should improve our {\bf bandwidth limiting}.  The current system has been
-crucial in making users willing to run servers: nobody is willing to run a
-server if it might use an unbounded amount of bandwidth, especially if they
-are charged for their usage.  We can make our system better by letting users
-configure bandwidth limits independently for their own traffic and traffic
-relayed for others; and by adding write limits for users running directory
-servers.\plan{Do in 2006; 2-3 weeks.}
-
-On many hosts, sockets are still in short supply, and will be until we can
-migrate our protocol to UDP.  We can {\bf use fewer sockets} by making our
-self-to-self connections happen internally to the code rather than involving
-the operating system's socket implementation.\plan{Optional; 1 week.}
-
-\subsection{Performance: network usage}
-We know too little about how well our current path
-selection algorithms actually spread traffic around the network in practice.
-We should {\bf research the efficacy of our traffic allocation} and either
-assure ourselves that it is close enough to optimal as to need no improvement
-(unlikely) or {\bf identify ways to improve network usage}, and get more
-users' traffic delivered faster.  Performing this research will require
-careful thought about anonymity implications.
-
-We should also {\bf examine the efficacy of our congestion control
-  algorithm}, and see whether we can improve client performance in the
-presence of a congested network through dynamic `sendme' window sizes or
-other means.  This will have anonymity implications too if we aren't careful.
-
-\plan{For both of the above: research, design and write
-  a measurement tool in 2007: 1 month.  See if we can interest a graduate
-  student.}
-
-We should work on making Tor's cell-based protocol  perform better on
-networks with low bandwidth
-and high packet loss.\plan{Do in 2007 if we're funded to do it; 4-6 weeks.}
-
-\subsection{Performance scenario: one Tor client, many users}
-We should {\bf improve Tor's performance when a single Tor handles many
-  clients}.  Many organizations want to manage a single Tor client on their
-firewall for many users, rather than having each user install a separate
-Tor client.  We haven't optimized for this scenario, and it is likely that
-there are some code paths in the current implementation that become
-inefficient when a single Tor is servicing hundreds or thousands of client
-connections.  (Additionally, it is likely that such clients have interesting
-anonymity requirements the we should investigate.)  We should profile Tor
-under appropriate loads, identify bottlenecks, and fix them.\plan{Do in 2007
-  if we're funded to do it; 4-8 weeks.}
-
-\subsection{Tor servers on asymmetric bandwidth}
-
-Tor should work better on servers that have asymmetric connections like cable
-or DSL.  Because Tor has separate TCP connections between each
-hop, if the incoming bytes are arriving just fine and the outgoing bytes are
-all getting dropped on the floor, the TCP push-back mechanisms don't really
-transmit this information back to the incoming streams.\plan{Do in 2007 since
-  related to bandwidth limiting.  3-4 weeks.}
-
-\subsection{Running Tor as both client and server}
-
-Many performance tradeoffs and balances that might need more attention.
-We first need to track and fix whatever bottlenecks emerge; but we also
-need to invent good algorithms for prioritizing the client's traffic
-without starving the server's traffic too much.\plan{No idea; try
-profiling and improving things in 2007.}
-
-\subsection{Protocol redesign for UDP}
-Tor has relayed only TCP traffic since its first versions, and has used
-TLS-over-TCP to do so.  This approach has proved reliable and flexible, but
-in the long term we will need to allow UDP traffic on the network, and switch
-some or all of the network to using a UDP transport.  {\bf Supporting UDP
-  traffic} will make Tor more suitable for protocols that require UDP, such
-as many VOIP protocols.  {\bf Using a UDP transport} could greatly reduce
-resource limitations on servers, and make the network far less interruptible
-by lossy connections.  Either of these protocol changes would require a great
-deal of design work, however.  We hope to be able to enlist the aid of a few
-talented graduate students to assist with the initial design and
-specification, but the actual implementation will require significant testing
-of different reliable transport approaches.\plan{Maybe do a design in 2007 if
-we find an interested academic.  Ian or Ben L might be good partners here.}
-
-\section{Blocking resistance}
-
-\subsection{Design for blocking resistance}
-We have written a design document explaining our general approach to blocking
-resistance.  We should workshop it with other experts in the field to get
-their ideas about how we can improve Tor's efficacy as an anti-censorship
-tool.
-
-\subsection{Implementation: client-side and bridges-side}
-
-Our anticensorship design calls for some nodes to act as ``bridges''
-that are outside a national firewall, and others inside the firewall to
-act as pure clients.  This part of the design is quite clear-cut; we're
-probably ready to begin implementing it.  To {\bf implement bridges}, we
-need to have servers publish themselves as limited-availability relays
-to a special bridge authority if they judge they'd make good servers.
-We will also need to help provide documentation for port forwarding,
-and an easy configuration tool for running as a bridge.
-
-To {\bf implement clients}, we need to provide a flexible interface to
-learn about bridges and to act on knowledge of bridges. We also need
-to teach them how to know to use bridges as their first hop, and how to
-fetch directory information from both classes of directory authority.
-
-Clients also need to {\bf use the encrypted directory variant} added in Tor
-0.1.2.3-alpha.  This will let them retrieve directory information over Tor
-once they've got their initial bridges. We may want to get the rest of the
-Tor user base to begin using this encrypted directory variant too, to
-provide cover.
-
-Bridges will want to be able to {\bf listen on multiple addresses and ports}
-if they can, to give the adversary more ports to block.
-
-\subsection{Research: anonymity implications from becoming a bridge}
-
-\subsection{Implementation: bridge authority}
-
-The design here is also reasonably clear-cut: we need to run some
-directory authorities with a slightly modified protocol that doesn't leak
-the entire list of bridges. Thus users can learn up-to-date information
-for bridges they already know about, but they can't learn about arbitrary
-new bridges.
-
-\subsection{Normalizing the Tor protocol on the wire}
-Additionally, we should {\bf resist content-based filters}.  Though an
-adversary can't see what users are saying, some aspects of our protocol are
-easy to fingerprint {\em as} Tor.  We should correct this where possible.
-
-Look like Firefox; or look like nothing?
-Future research: investigate timing similarities with other protocols.
-
-\subsection{Access control for bridges}
-Design/impl: password-protecting bridges, in light of above.
-And/or more general access control.
-
-\subsection{Research: scanning-resistance}
-
-\subsection{Research/Design/Impl: how users discover bridges}
-Our design anticipates an arms race between discovery methods and censors.
-We need to begin the infrastructure on our side quickly, preferably in a
-flexible language like Python, so we can adapt quickly to censorship.
-
-phase one: personal bridges
-phase two: families of personal bridges
-phase three: more structured social network
-phase four: bag of tricks
-Research: phase five...
-
-Integration with Psiphon, etc?
-
-\subsection{Document best practices for users}
-Document best practices for various activities common among
-blocked users (e.g. WordPress use).
-
-\subsection{Research: how to know if a bridge has been blocked?}
-
-\subsection{GeoIP maintenance, and "private" user statistics}
-How to know if the whole idea is working?
-
-\subsection{Research: hiding whether the user is reading or publishing?}
-
-\subsection{Research: how many bridges do you need to know to maintain
-reachability?}
-
-\subsection{Resisting censorship of the Tor website, docs, and mirrors}
-
-We should take some effort to consider {\bf initial distribution of Tor and
-  related information} in countries where the Tor website and mirrors are
-censored.  (Right now, most countries that block access to Tor block only the
-main website and leave mirrors and the network itself untouched.)  Falling
-back on word-of-mouth is always a good last resort, but we should also take
-steps to make sure it's relatively easy for users to get ahold of a copy.
-
-\section{Security}
-
-\subsection{Security research projects}
-
-We should investigate approaches with some promise to help Tor resist
-end-to-end traffic correlation attacks.  It's an open research question
-whether (and to what extent) {\bf mixed-latency} networks, {\bf low-volume
-  long-distance padding}, or other approaches can resist these attacks, which
-are currently some of the most effective against careful Tor users.  We
-should research these questions and perform simulations to identify
-opportunities for strengthening our design without dropping performance to
-unacceptable levels. %Cite something
-\plan{Start doing this in 2007; write a paper.  8-16 weeks.}
-
-We've got some preliminary results suggesting that {\bf a topology-aware
-  routing algorithm}~\cite{feamster:wpes2004} could reduce Tor users'
-vulnerability against local or ISP-level adversaries, by ensuring that they
-are never in a position to watch both ends of a connection.  We need to
-examine the effects of this approach in more detail and consider side-effects
-on anonymity against other kinds of adversaries.  If the approach still looks
-promising, we should investigate ways for clients to implement it (or an
-approximation of it) without having to download routing tables for the whole
-Internet. \plan{Not in 2007 unless a graduate student wants to do it.}
-
-%\tmp{defenses against end-to-end correlation}  We don't expect any to work
-%right now, but it would be useful to learn that one did.  Alternatively,
-%proving that one didn't would free up researchers in the field to go work on
-%other things.
-%
-% See above; I think I got this.
-
-We should research the efficacy of {\bf website fingerprinting} attacks,
-wherein an adversary tries to match the distinctive traffic and timing
-pattern of the resources constituting a given website to the traffic pattern
-of a user's client.  These attacks work great in simulations, but in
-practice we hear they don't work nearly as well.  We should get some actual
-numbers to investigate the issue, and figure out what's going on.  If we
-resist these attacks, or can improve our design to resist them, we should.
-% add cites
-\plan{Possibly part of end-to-end correlation paper.  Otherwise, not in 2007
-  unless a graduate student is interested.}
-
-\subsection{Implementation security}
-Right now, each Tor node stores its keys unencrypted.  We should {\bf encrypt
-  more Tor keys} so that Tor authorities can require a startup password.  We
-should look into adding intermediary medium-term ``signing keys'' between
-identity keys and onion keys, so that a password could be required to replace
-a signing key, but not to start Tor.  This would improve Tor's long-term
-security, especially in its directory authority infrastructure.\plan{Design this
-  as a part of the revised ``v2.1'' directory protocol; implement it in
-  2007. 3-4 weeks.}
-
-We should also {\bf mark RAM that holds key material as non-swappable} so
-that there is no risk of recovering key material from a hard disk
-compromise.  This would require submitting patches upstream to OpenSSL, where
-support for marking memory as sensitive is currently in a very preliminary
-state.\plan{Nice to do, but not in immediate Tor scope.}
-
-There are numerous tools for identifying trouble spots in code (such as
-Coverity or even VS2005's code analysis tool) and we should convince somebody
-to run some of them against the Tor codebase.  Ideally, we could figure out a
-way to get our code checked periodically rather than just once.\plan{Almost
-  no time once we talk somebody into it.}
-
-We should try {\bf protocol fuzzing} to identify errors in our
-implementation.\plan{Not in 2007 unless we find a grad student or
-  undergraduate who wants to try.}
-
-Our guard nodes help prevent an attacker from being able to become a chosen
-client's entry point by having each client choose a few favorite entry points
-as ``guards'' and stick to them.   We should implement a {\bf directory
-  guards} feature to keep adversaries from enumerating Tor users by acting as
-a directory cache.\plan{Do in 2007; 2 weeks.}
-
-\subsection{Detect corrupt exits and other servers}
-With the success of our network, we've attracted servers in many locations,
-operated by many kinds of people.  Unfortunately, some of these locations
-have compromised or defective networks, and some of these people are
-untrustworthy or incompetent.  Our current design relies on authority
-administrators to identify bad nodes and mark them as nonfunctioning.  We
-should {\bf automate the process of identifying malfunctioning nodes} as
-follows:
-
-We should create a generic {\bf feedback mechanism for add-on tools} like
-Mike Perry's ``Snakes on a Tor'' to report failing nodes to authorities.
-\plan{Do in 2006; 1-2 weeks.}
-
-We should write tools to {\bf detect more kinds of innocent node failure},
-such as nodes whose network providers intercept SSL, nodes whose network
-providers censor popular websites, and so on.  We should also try to detect
-{\bf routers that snoop traffic}; we could do this by launching connections
-to throwaway accounts, and seeing which accounts get used.\plan{Do in 2007;
-  ask Mike Perry if he's interested.  4-6 weeks.}
-
-We should add {\bf an efficient way for authorities to mark a set of servers
-  as probably collaborating} though not necessarily otherwise dishonest.
-This happens when an administrator starts multiple routers, but doesn't mark
-them as belonging to the same family.\plan{Do during v2.1 directory protocol
-  redesign; 1-2 weeks to implement.}
-
-To avoid attacks where an adversary claims good performance in order to
-attract traffic, we should {\bf have authorities measure node performance}
-(including stability and bandwidth) themselves, and not simply believe what
-they're told.  Measuring stability can be done by tracking MTBF.  Measuring
-bandwidth can be tricky, since it's hard to distinguish between a server with
-low capacity, and a high-capacity server with most of its capacity in
-use.\plan{Do ``Stable'' in 2007; 2-3 weeks.  ``Fast'' will be harder; do it
-  if we can interest a grad student.}
-
-{\bf Operating a directory authority should be easier.}  We rely on authority
-operators to keep the network running well, but right now their job involves
-too much busywork and administrative overhead.  A better interface for them
-to use could free their time to work on exception cases rather than on
-adding named nodes to the network.\plan{Do in 2007; 4-5 weeks.}
-
-\subsection{Protocol security}
-
-In addition to other protocol changes discussed above,
-% And should we move some of them down here? -NM
-we should add {\bf hooks for denial-of-service resistance}; we have some
-preliminary designs, but we shouldn't postpone them until we really need them.
-If somebody tries a DDoS attack against the Tor network, we won't want to
-wait for all the servers and clients to upgrade to a new
-version.\plan{Research project; do this in 2007 if funded.}
-
-\section{Development infrastructure}
-
-\subsection{Build farm}
-We've begun to deploy a cross-platform distributed build farm of hosts
-that build and test the Tor source every time it changes in our development
-repository.
-
-We need to {\bf get more participants}, so that we can test a larger variety
-of platforms.  (Previously, we've only found out when our code had broken on
-obscure platforms when somebody got around to building it.)
-
-We need also to {\bf add our dependencies} to the build farm, so that we can
-ensure that libraries we need (especially libevent) do not stop working on
-any important platform between one release and the next.
-
-\plan{This is ongoing as more buildbots arrive.}
-
-\subsection{Improved testing harness}
-Currently, our {\bf unit tests} cover only about 20\% of the code base.  This
-is uncomfortably low; we should write more and switch to a more flexible
-testing framework.\plan{Ongoing basis, time permitting.}
-
-We should also write flexible {\bf automated single-host deployment tests} so
-we can more easily verify that the current codebase works with the
-network.\plan{Worthwhile in 2007; would save lots of time.  2-4 weeks.}
-
-We should build automated {\bf stress testing} frameworks so we can see which
-realistic loads cause Tor to perform badly, and regularly profile Tor against
-these loads.  This would give us {\it in vitro} performance values to
-supplement our deployment experience.\plan{Worthwhile in 2007; 2-6 weeks.}
-
-We should improve our memory profiling code.\plan{...}
-
-
-\subsection{Centralized build system}
-We currently rely on a separate packager to maintain the packaging system and
-to build Tor on each platform for which we distribute binaries.  Separate
-package maintainers is sensible, but separate package builders has meant
-long turnaround times between source releases and package releases.  We
-should create the necessary infrastructure for us to produce binaries for all
-major packages within an hour or so of source release.\plan{We should
-  brainstorm this at least in 2007.}
-
-\subsection{Improved metrics}
-We need a way to {\bf measure the network's health, capacity, and degree of
-  utilization}.  Our current means for doing this are ad hoc and not
-completely accurate
-
-We need better ways to {\bf tell which countries are users are coming from,
-  and how many there are}.  A good perspective of the network helps us
-allocate resources and identify trouble spots, but our current approaches
-will work less and less well as we make it harder for adversaries to
-enumerate users.  We'll probably want to shift to a smarter, statistical
-approach rather than our current ``count and extrapolate'' method.
-
-\plan{All of this in 2007 if funded; 4-8 weeks}
-
-% \tmp{We'd like to know how much of the network is getting used.}
-% I think this is covered above -NM
-
-\subsection{Controller library}
-We've done lots of design and development on our controller interface, which
-allows UI applications and other tools to interact with Tor.  We could
-encourage the development of more such tools by releasing a {\bf
-  general-purpose controller library}, ideally with API support for several
-popular programming languages.\plan{2006 or 2007; 1-2 weeks.}
-
-\section{User experience}
-
-\subsection{Get blocked less, get blocked less broadly}
-Right now, some services block connections from the Tor network because
-they don't have a better
-way to keep vandals from abusing them than blocking IP addresses associated
-with vandalism.  Our approach so far has been to educate them about better
-solutions that currently exist, but we should also {\bf create better
-solutions for limiting vandalism by anonymous users} like credential and
-blind-signature based implementations, and encourage their use. Other
-promising starting points including writing a patch and explanation for
-Wikipedia, and helping Freenode to document, maintain, and expand its
-current Tor-friendly position.\plan{Do a writeup here in 2007; 1-2 weeks.}
-
-Those who do block Tor users also block overbroadly, sometimes blacklisting
-operators of Tor servers that do not permit exit to their services.  We could
-obviate innocent reasons for doing so by designing a {\bf narrowly-targeted Tor
-  RBL service} so that those who wanted to overblock Tor could no longer
-plead incompetence.\plan{Possibly in 2007 if we decide it's a good idea; 3
-  weeks.}
-
-\subsection{All-in-one bundle}
-We need a well-tested, well-documented bundle of Tor and supporting
-applications configured to use it correctly.  We have an initial
-implementation well under way, but it will need additional work in
-identifying requisite Firefox extensions, identifying security threats,
-improving user experience, and so on.  This will need significantly more work
-before it's ready for a general public release.
-
-\subsection{LiveCD Tor}
-We need a nice bootable livecd containing a minimal OS and a few applications
-configured to use it correctly.  The Anonym.OS project demonstrated that this
-is quite feasible, but their project is not currently maintained.
-
-\subsection{A Tor client in a VM}
-\tmp{a.k.a JanusVM} which is quite related to the firewall-level deployment
-section below. JanusVM is a Linux kernel running in VMWare. It gets an IP
-address from the network, and serves as a DHCP server for its host Windows
-machine. It intercepts all outgoing traffic and redirects it into Privoxy,
-Tor, etc. This Linux-in-Windows approach may help us with scalability in
-the short term, and it may also be a good long-term solution rather than
-accepting all security risks in Windows.
-
-%\subsection{Interface improvements}
-%\tmp{Allow controllers to manipulate server status.}
-% (Why is this in the User Experience section?) -RD
-% I think it's better left to a generic ``make controller iface better'' item.
-
-\subsection{Firewall-level deployment}
-Another useful deployment mode for some users is using {\bf Tor in a firewall
-  configuration}, and directing all their traffic through Tor.  This can be a
-little tricky to set up currently, but it's an effective way to make sure no
-traffic leaves the host un-anonymized.  To achieve this, we need to {\bf
-  improve and port our new TransPort} feature which allows Tor to be used
-without SOCKS support; to {\bf add an anonymizing DNS proxy} feature to Tor;
-and to {\bf construct a recommended set of firewall configurations} to redirect
-traffic to Tor.
-
-This is an area where {\bf deployment via a livecd}, or an installation
-targeted at specialized home routing hardware, could be useful.
-
-\subsection{Assess software and configurations for anonymity risks}
-Right now, users and packagers are more or less on their own when selecting
-Firefox extensions.  We should {\bf assemble a recommended list of browser
-  extensions} through experiment, and include this in the application bundles
-we distribute.
-
-We should also describe {\bf best practices for using Tor with each class of
-  application}. For example, Ethan Zuckerman has written a detailed
-tutorial on how to use Tor, Firefox, GMail, and Wordpress to blog with
-improved safety. There are many other cases on the Internet where anonymity
-would be helpful, and there are a lot of ways to screw up using Tor.
-
-The Foxtor and Torbutton extensions serve similar purposes; we should pick a
-favorite, and merge in the useful features of the other.
-
-%\tmp{clean up our own bundled software:
-%E.g. Merge the good features of Foxtor into Torbutton}
-%
-% What else did you have in mind? -NM
-
-\subsection{Localization}
-Right now, most of our user-facing code is internationalized.  We need to
-internationalize the last few hold-outs (like the Tor expert installer), and get
-more translations for the parts that are already internationalized.
-
-Also, we should look into a {\bf unified translator's solution}.  Currently,
-since different tools have been internationalized using the
-framework-appropriate method, different tools require translators to localize
-them via different interfaces.  Inasmuch as possible, we should make
-translators only need to use a single tool to translate the whole Tor suite.
-
-\section{Support}
-
-It would be nice to set up some {\bf user support infrastructure} and
-{\bf contributor support infrastructure}, especially focusing on server
-operators and on coordinating volunteers.
-
-This includes intuitive and easy ticket systems for bug reports and
-feature suggestions (not just mailing lists with a half dozen people
-and no clear roles for who answers what), but it also includes a more
-personalized and efficient framework for interaction so we keep the
-attention and interest of the contributors, and so we make them feel
-helpful and wanted.
-
-\section{Documentation}
-
-\subsection{Unified documentation scheme}
-
-We need to {\bf inventory our documentation.}  Our documentation so far has
-been mostly produced on an {\it ad hoc} basis, in response to particular
-needs and requests.  We should figure out what documentation we have, which of
-it (if any) should get priority, and whether we can't put it all into a
-single format.
-
-We could {\bf unify the docs} into a single book-like thing.  This will also
-help us identify what sections of the ``book'' are missing.
-
-\subsection{Missing technical documentation}
-
-We should {\bf revise our design paper} to reflect the new decisions and
-research we've made since it was published in 2004.  This will help other
-researchers evaluate and suggest improvements to Tor's current design.
-
-Other projects sometimes implement the client side of our protocol.  We
-encourage this, but we should write {\bf a document about how to avoid
-excessive resource use}, so we don't need to worry that they will do so
-without regard to the effect of their choices on server resources.
-
-\subsection{Missing user documentation}
-
-Our documentation falls into two broad categories: some is `discoursive' and
-explains in detail why users should take certain actions, and other
-documentation is `comprehensive' and describes all of Tor's features.  Right
-now, we have no document that is both deep, readable, and thorough.  We
-should correct this by identifying missing spots in our design.
-
-\bibliographystyle{plain} \bibliography{tor-design}
-
-\end{document}
-

doc/roadmaps/roadmap-future.tex

@@ -1,895 +0,0 @@
-\documentclass{article}
-
-\usepackage{url}
-\usepackage{fullpage}
-
-\newenvironment{tightlist}{\begin{list}{$\bullet$}{
-  \setlength{\itemsep}{0mm}
-    \setlength{\parsep}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\labelsep}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\labelwidth}{0mm}
-    %  \setlength{\topsep}{0mm}
-    }}{\end{list}}
-\newcommand{\tmp}[1]{{\bf #1} [......] \\}
-\newcommand{\plan}[1]{ {\bf (#1)}}
-
-\begin{document}
-
-\title{Tor Development Roadmap: Wishlist for 2008 and beyond}
-\author{Roger Dingledine \and Nick Mathewson}
-\date{}
-
-\maketitle
-\pagestyle{plain}
-
-\section{Introduction}
-
-Tor (the software) and Tor (the overall software/network/support/document
-suite) are now experiencing all the crises of success.  Over the next
-years, we're probably going to grow even more in terms of users, developers,
-and funding than before. This document attempts to lay out all the
-well-understood next steps that Tor needs to take. We should periodically
-reorganize it to reflect current and intended priorities.
-
-\section{Everybody can be a relay}
-
-We've made a lot of progress towards letting an ordinary Tor client also
-serve as a Tor relay. But these issues remain.
-
-\subsection{UPNP}
-
-We should teach Vidalia how to speak UPNP to automatically open and
-forward ports on common (e.g. Linksys) routers. There are some promising
-Qt-based UPNP libs out there, and in any case there are others (e.g. in
-Perl) that we can base it on.
-
-\subsection{``ORPort auto'' to look for a reachable port}
-
-Vidalia defaults to port 443 on Windows and port 8080 elsewhere. But if
-that port is already in use, or the ISP filters incoming connections
-on that port (some cablemodem providers filter 443 inbound), the user
-needs to learn how to notice this, and then pick a new one and type it
-into Vidalia.
-
-We should add a new option ``auto'' that cycles through a set of preferred
-ports, testing bindability and reachability for each of them, and only
-complains to the user once it's given up on the common choices.
-
-\subsection{Incentives design}
-
-Roger has been working with researchers at Rice University to simulate
-and analyze a new design where the directory authorities assign gold
-stars to well-behaving relays, and then all the relays give priority
-to traffic from gold-starred relays. The great feature of the design is
-that not only does it provide the (explicit) incentive to run a relay,
-but it also aims to grow the overall capacity of the network, so even
-non-relays will benefit.
-
-It needs more analysis, and perhaps more design work, before we try
-deploying it.
-
-\subsection{Windows libevent}
-
-Tor relays still don't work well or reliably on Windows XP or Windows
-Vista, because we don't use the Windows-native ``overlapped IO''
-approach. Christian King made a good start at teaching libevent about
-overlapped IO during Google Summer of Code 2007, and next steps are
-to a) finish that, b) teach Tor to do openssl calls on buffers rather
-than directly to the network, and c) teach Tor to use the new libevent
-buffers approach.
-
-\subsection{Network scaling}
-
-If we attract many more relays, we will need to handle the growing pains
-in terms of getting all the directory information to all the users.
-
-The first piece of this issue is a practical question: since the
-directory size scales linearly with more relays, at some point it
-will no longer be practical for every client to learn about every
-relay. We can try to reduce the amount of information each client needs
-to fetch (e.g. based on fetching less information preemptively as in
-Section~\ref{subsec:fewer-descriptor-fetches} below), but eventually
-clients will need to learn about only a subset of the network, and we
-will need to design good ways to divide up the network information.
-
-The second piece is an anonymity question that arises from this
-partitioning: if Tor's security comes from having all the clients
-behaving in similar ways, yet we are now giving different clients
-different directory information, how can we minimize the new anonymity
-attacks we introduce?
-
-\subsection{Using fewer sockets}
-
-Since in the current network every Tor relay can reach every other Tor
-relay, and we have many times more users than relays, pretty much every
-possible link in the network is in use. That is, the current network
-is a clique in practice.
-
-And since each of these connections requires a TCP socket, it's going
-to be hard for the network to grow much larger: many systems come with
-a default of 1024 file descriptors allowed per process, and raising
-that ulimit is hard for end users. Worse, many low-end gateway/firewall
-routers can't handle this many connections in their routing table.
-
-One approach is a restricted-route topology~\cite{danezis:pet2003}:
-predefine which relays can reach which other relays, and communicate
-these restrictions to the relays and the clients. We need to compute
-which links are acceptable in a way that's decentralized yet scalable,
-and in a way that achieves a small-worlds property; and we
-need an efficient (compact) way to characterize the topology information
-so all the users could keep up to date.
-
-Another approach would be to switch to UDP-based transport between
-relays, so we don't need to keep the TCP sockets open at all. Needs more
-investigation too.
-
-\subsection{Auto bandwidth detection and rate limiting, especially for
-      asymmetric connections.}
-
-
-\subsection{Better algorithms for giving priority to local traffic}
-
-Proposal 111 made a lot of progress at separating local traffic from
-relayed traffic, so Tor users can rate limit the relayed traffic at a
-stricter level. But since we want to pass both traffic classes over the
-same TCP connection, we can't keep them entirely separate. The current
-compromise is that we treat all bytes to/from a given connectin as
-local traffic if any of the bytes within the past N seconds were local
-bytes.  But a) we could use some more intelligent heuristics, and b)
-this leaks information to an active attacker about when local traffic
-was sent/received.
-
-\subsection{Tolerate absurdly wrong clocks, even for relays}
-
-Many of our users are on Windows, running with a clock several days or
-even several years off from reality. Some of them are even intentionally
-in this state so they can run software that will only run in the past.
-
-Before Tor 0.1.1.x, Tor clients would still function if their clock was
-wildly off --- they simply got a copy of the directory and believed it.
-Starting in Tor 0.1.1.x (and even moreso in Tor 0.2.0.x), the clients
-only use networkstatus documents that they believe to be recent, so
-clients with extremely wrong clocks no longer work. (This bug has been
-an unending source of vague and confusing bug reports.)
-
-The first step is for clients to recognize when all the directory material
-they're fetching has roughly the same offset from their current time,
-and then automatically correct for it.
-
-Once that's working well, clients who opt to become bridge relays should
-be able to use the same approach to serve accurate directory information
-to their bridge users.
-
-\subsection{Risks from being a relay}
-
-Three different research
-papers~\cite{back01,clog-the-queue,attack-tor-oak05} describe ways to
-identify the nodes in a circuit by running traffic through candidate nodes
-and looking for dips in the traffic while the circuit is active. These
-clogging attacks are not that scary in the Tor context so long as relays
-are never clients too. But if we're trying to encourage more clients to
-turn on relay functionality too (whether as bridge relays or as normal
-relays), then we need to understand this threat better and learn how to
-mitigate it.
-
-One promising research direction is to investigate the RelayBandwidthRate
-feature that lets Tor rate limit relayed traffic differently from local
-traffic. Since the attacker's ``clogging'' traffic is not in the same
-bandwidth class as the traffic initiated by the user, it may be harder
-to detect interference. Or it may not be.
-
-\subsection{First a bridge, then a public relay?}
-
-Once enough of the items in this section are done, I want all clients
-to start out automatically detecting their reachability and opting
-to be bridge relays.
-
-Then if they realize they have enough consistency and bandwidth, they
-should automatically upgrade to being non-exit relays.
-
-What metrics should we use for deciding when we're fast enough
-and stable enough to switch? Given that the list of bridge relays needs
-to be kept secret, it doesn't make much sense to switch back.
-
-\section{Tor on low resources / slow links}
-\subsection{Reducing directory fetches further}
-\label{subsec:fewer-descriptor-fetches}
-\subsection{AvoidDiskWrites}
-\subsection{Using less ram}
-\subsection{Better DoS resistance for tor servers / authorities}
-\section{Blocking resistance}
-\subsection{Better bridge-address-distribution strategies}
-\subsection{Get more volunteers running bridges}
-\subsection{Handle multiple bridge authorities}
-\subsection{Anonymity for bridge users: second layer of entry guards, etc?}
-\subsection{More TLS normalization}
-\subsection{Harder to block Tor software distribution}
-\subsection{Integration with Psiphon}
-\section{Packaging}
-\subsection{Switch Privoxy out for Polipo}
-      - Make Vidalia able to launch more programs itself
-\subsection{Continue Torbutton improvements}
-      especially better docs
-\subsection{Vidalia and stability (especially wrt ongoing Windows problems)}
-      learn how to get useful crash reports (tracebacks) from Windows users
-\subsection{Polipo support on Windows}
-\subsection{Auto update for Tor, Vidalia, others}
-\subsection{Tor browser bundle for USB and standalone use}
-\subsection{LiveCD solution}
-\subsection{VM-based solution}
-\subsection{Tor-on-enclave-firewall configuration}
-\subsection{General tutorials on what common applications are Tor-friendly}
-\subsection{Controller libraries (torctl) plus documentation}
-\subsection{Localization and translation (Vidalia, Torbutton, web pages)}
-\section{Interacting better with Internet sites}
-\subsection{Make tordnsel (tor exitlist) better and more well-known}
-\subsection{Nymble}
-\subsection{Work with Wikipedia, Slashdot, Google(, IRC networks)}
-\subsection{IPv6 support for exit destinations}
-\section{Network health}
-\subsection{torflow / soat to detect bad relays}
-\subsection{make authorities more automated}
-\subsection{torstatus pages and better trend tracking}
-\subsection{better metrics for assessing network health / growth}
-      - geoip usage-by-country reporting and aggregation
-        (Once that's working, switch to Directory guards)
-\section{Performance research}
-\subsection{Load balance better}
-\subsection{Improve our congestion control algorithms}
-\subsection{Two-hops vs Three-hops}
-\subsection{Transport IP packets end-to-end}
-\section{Outreach and user education}
-\subsection{"Who uses Tor" use cases}
-\subsection{Law enforcement contacts}
-      - "Was this IP address a Tor relay recently?" database
-\subsection{Commercial/enterprise outreach. Help them use Tor well and
-      not fear it.}
-\subsection{NGO outreach and training.}
-      - "How to be a safe blogger"
-\subsection{More activist coordinators, more people to answer user questions}
-\subsection{More people to hold hands of server operators}
-\subsection{Teaching the media about Tor}
-\subsection{The-dangers-of-plaintext awareness}
-\subsection{check.torproject.org and other "privacy checkers"}
-\subsection{Stronger legal FAQ for US}
-\subsection{Legal FAQs for other countries}
-\section{Anonymity research}
-\subsection{estimate relay bandwidth more securely}
-\subsection{website fingerprinting attacks}
-\subsection{safer e2e defenses}
-\subsection{Using Tor when you really need anonymity. Can you compose it
-      with other steps, like more trusted guards or separate proxies?}
-\subsection{Topology-aware routing; routing-zones, steven's pet2007 paper.}
-\subsection{Exactly what do guard nodes provide?}
-
-Entry guards seem to defend against all sorts of attacks. Can we work
-through all the benefits they provide? Papers like Nikita's CCS 2007
-paper make me think their value is not well-understood by the research
-community.
-
-\section{Organizational growth and stability}
-\subsection{A contingency plan if Roger gets hit by a bus}
-      - Get a new executive director
-\subsection{More diversity of funding}
-      - Don't rely on any one funder as much
-      - Don't rely on any sector or funder category as much
-\subsection{More Tor-funded people who are skilled at peripheral apps like
-      Vidalia, Torbutton, Polipo, etc}
-\subsection{More coordinated media handling and strategy}
-\subsection{Clearer and more predictable trademark behavior}
-\subsection{More outside funding for internships, etc e.g. GSoC.}
-\section{Hidden services}
-\subsection{Scaling: how to handle many hidden services}
-\subsection{Performance: how to rendezvous with them quickly}
-\subsection{Authentication/authorization: how to tolerate DoS / load}
-\section{Tor as a general overlay network}
-\subsection{Choose paths / exit by country}
-\subsection{Easier to run your own private servers and have Tor use them
-      anywhere in the path}
-\subsection{Easier to run an independent Tor network}
-\section{Code security/correctness}
-\subsection{veracode}
-\subsection{code audit}
-\subsection{more fuzzing tools}
-\subsection{build farm, better testing harness}
-\subsection{Long-overdue code refactoring and cleanup}
-\section{Protocol security}
-\subsection{safer circuit handshake}
-\subsection{protocol versioning for future compatibility}
-\subsection{cell sizes}
-\subsection{adapt to new key sizes, etc}
-
-\bibliographystyle{plain} \bibliography{tor-design}
-
-\end{document}
-
-
-
-
-\section{Code and design infrastructure}
-
-\subsection{Protocol revision}
-To maintain backward compatibility, we've postponed major protocol
-changes and redesigns for a long time.  Because of this, there are a number
-of sensible revisions we've been putting off until we could deploy several of
-them at once.  To do each of these, we first need to discuss design
-alternatives with other cryptographers and outside collaborators to
-make sure that our choices are secure.
-
-First of all, our protocol needs better {\bf versioning support} so that we
-can make backward-incompatible changes to our core protocol.  There are
-difficult anonymity issues here, since many naive designs would make it easy
-to tell clients apart (and then track them) based on their supported versions.
-
-With protocol versioning support would come the ability to {\bf future-proof
-  our ciphersuites}.  For example, not only our OR protocol, but also our
-directory protocol, is pretty firmly tied to the SHA-1 hash function, which
-though not yet known to be insecure for our purposes, has begun to show
-its age.  We should
-remove assumptions throughout our design based on the assumption that public
-keys, secret keys, or digests will remain any particular size indefinitely.
-
-Our OR {\bf authentication protocol}, though provably
-secure\cite{tap:pet2006}, relies more on particular aspects of RSA and our
-implementation thereof than we had initially believed.  To future-proof
-against changes, we should replace it with a less delicate approach.
-
-\plan{For all the above: 2 person-months to specify, spread over several
-  months with time for interaction with external participants.  One
-  person-month to implement.  Start specifying in early 2007.}
-
-We might design a {\bf stream migration} feature so that streams tunneled
-over Tor could be more resilient to dropped connections and changed IPs.
-\plan{Not in 2007.}
-
-A new protocol could support {\bf multiple cell sizes}.  Right now, all data
-passes through the Tor network divided into 512-byte cells.  This is
-efficient for high-bandwidth protocols, but inefficient for protocols
-like SSH or AIM that send information in small chunks.  Of course, we need to
-investigate the extent to which multiple sizes could make it easier for an
-adversary to fingerprint a traffic pattern. \plan{Not in 2007.}
-
-As a part of our design, we should investigate possible {\bf cipher modes}
-other than counter mode.  For example, a mode with built-in integrity
-checking, error propagation, and random access could simplify our protocol
-significantly.  Sadly, many of these are patented and unavailable for us.
-\plan{Not in 2007.}
-
-\subsection{Scalability}
-
-\subsubsection{Improved directory efficiency}
-
-We should {\bf have routers upload their descriptors even less often}, so
-that clients do not need to download replacements every 18 hours whether any
-information has changed or not.  (As of Tor 0.1.2.3-alpha, clients tolerate
-routers that don't upload often, but routers still upload at least every 18
-hours to support older clients.) \plan{Must do, but not until 0.1.1.x is
-deprecated in mid 2007. 1 week.}
-
-\subsubsection{Non-clique topology}
-Our current network design achieves a certain amount of its anonymity by
-making clients act like each other through the simple expedient of making
-sure that all clients know all servers, and that any server can talk to any
-other server.  But as the number of servers increases to serve an
-ever-greater number of clients, these assumptions become impractical.
-
-At worst, if these scalability issues become troubling before a solution is
-found, we can design and build a solution to {\bf split the network into
-multiple slices} until a better solution comes along.  This is not ideal,
-since rather than looking like all other users from a point of view of path
-selection, users would ``only'' look like 200,000--300,000 other
-users.\plan{Not unless needed.}
-
-We are in the process of designing {\bf improved schemes for network
-  scalability}.  Some approaches focus on limiting what an adversary can know
-about what a user knows; others focus on reducing the extent to which an
-adversary can exploit this knowledge.  These are currently in their infancy,
-and will probably not be needed in 2007, but they must be designed in 2007 if
-they are to be deployed in 2008.\plan{Design in 2007; unknown difficulty.
-  Write a paper.}
-
-\subsubsection{Relay incentives}
-To support more users on the network, we need to get more servers.  So far,
-we've relied on volunteerism to attract server operators, and so far it's
-served us well.  But in the long run, we need to {\bf design incentives for
-  users to run servers} and relay traffic for others.  Most obviously, we
-could try to build the network so that servers offered improved service for
-other servers, but we would need to do so without weakening anonymity and
-making it obvious which connections originate from users running servers.  We
-have some preliminary designs~\cite{incentives-txt,tor-challenges},
-but need to perform
-some more research to make sure they would be safe and effective.\plan{Write
-  a draft paper; 2 person-months.}
-(XXX we did that)
-
-\subsection{Portability}
-Our {\bf Windows implementation}, though much improved, continues to lag
-behind Unix and Mac OS X, especially when running as a server.  We hope to
-merge promising patches from Christian King to address this point, and bring
-Windows performance on par with other platforms.\plan{Do in 2007; 1.5 months
-  to integrate not counting Mike's work.}
-
-We should have {\bf better support for portable devices}, including modes of
-operation that require less RAM, and that write to disk less frequently (to
-avoid wearing out flash RAM).\plan{Optional; 2 weeks.}
-
-\subsection{Performance: resource usage}
-We've been working on {\bf using less RAM}, especially on servers.  This has
-paid off a lot for directory caches in the 0.1.2, which in some cases are
-using 90\% less memory than they used to require.  But we can do better,
-especially in the area around our buffer management algorithms, by using an
-approach more like the BSD and Linux kernels use instead of our current ring
-buffer approach.  (For OR connections, we can just use queues of cell-sized
-chunks produced with a specialized allocator.)  This could potentially save
-around 25 to 50\% of the memory currently allocated for network buffers, and
-make Tor a more attractive proposition for restricted-memory environments
-like old computers, mobile devices, and the like.\plan{Do in 2007; 2-3 weeks
-  plus one week measurement.} (XXX We did this, but we need to do something
-more/else.)
-
-\subsection{Performance: network usage}
-We know too little about how well our current path
-selection algorithms actually spread traffic around the network in practice.
-We should {\bf research the efficacy of our traffic allocation} and either
-assure ourselves that it is close enough to optimal as to need no improvement
-(unlikely) or {\bf identify ways to improve network usage}, and get more
-users' traffic delivered faster.  Performing this research will require
-careful thought about anonymity implications.
-
-We should also {\bf examine the efficacy of our congestion control
-  algorithm}, and see whether we can improve client performance in the
-presence of a congested network through dynamic `sendme' window sizes or
-other means.  This will have anonymity implications too if we aren't careful.
-
-\plan{For both of the above: research, design and write
-  a measurement tool in 2007: 1 month.  See if we can interest a graduate
-  student.}
-
-We should work on making Tor's cell-based protocol  perform better on
-networks with low bandwidth
-and high packet loss.\plan{Do in 2007 if we're funded to do it; 4-6 weeks.}
-
-\subsection{Performance scenario: one Tor client, many users}
-We should {\bf improve Tor's performance when a single Tor handles many
-  clients}.  Many organizations want to manage a single Tor client on their
-firewall for many users, rather than having each user install a separate
-Tor client.  We haven't optimized for this scenario, and it is likely that
-there are some code paths in the current implementation that become
-inefficient when a single Tor is servicing hundreds or thousands of client
-connections.  (Additionally, it is likely that such clients have interesting
-anonymity requirements the we should investigate.)  We should profile Tor
-under appropriate loads, identify bottlenecks, and fix them.\plan{Do in 2007
-  if we're funded to do it; 4-8 weeks.}
-
-\subsection{Tor servers on asymmetric bandwidth}
-
-Tor should work better on servers that have asymmetric connections like cable
-or DSL.  Because Tor has separate TCP connections between each
-hop, if the incoming bytes are arriving just fine and the outgoing bytes are
-all getting dropped on the floor, the TCP push-back mechanisms don't really
-transmit this information back to the incoming streams.\plan{Do in 2007 since
-  related to bandwidth limiting.  3-4 weeks.}
-
-\subsection{Running Tor as both client and server}
-
-Many performance tradeoffs and balances that might need more attention.
-We first need to track and fix whatever bottlenecks emerge; but we also
-need to invent good algorithms for prioritizing the client's traffic
-without starving the server's traffic too much.\plan{No idea; try
-profiling and improving things in 2007.}
-
-\subsection{Protocol redesign for UDP}
-Tor has relayed only TCP traffic since its first versions, and has used
-TLS-over-TCP to do so.  This approach has proved reliable and flexible, but
-in the long term we will need to allow UDP traffic on the network, and switch
-some or all of the network to using a UDP transport.  {\bf Supporting UDP
-  traffic} will make Tor more suitable for protocols that require UDP, such
-as many VOIP protocols.  {\bf Using a UDP transport} could greatly reduce
-resource limitations on servers, and make the network far less interruptible
-by lossy connections.  Either of these protocol changes would require a great
-deal of design work, however.  We hope to be able to enlist the aid of a few
-talented graduate students to assist with the initial design and
-specification, but the actual implementation will require significant testing
-of different reliable transport approaches.\plan{Maybe do a design in 2007 if
-we find an interested academic.  Ian or Ben L might be good partners here.}
-
-\section{Blocking resistance}
-
-\subsection{Design for blocking resistance}
-We have written a design document explaining our general approach to blocking
-resistance.  We should workshop it with other experts in the field to get
-their ideas about how we can improve Tor's efficacy as an anti-censorship
-tool.
-
-\subsection{Implementation: client-side and bridges-side}
-
-Bridges will want to be able to {\bf listen on multiple addresses and ports}
-if they can, to give the adversary more ports to block.
-
-\subsection{Research: anonymity implications from becoming a bridge}
-
-see arma's bridge proposal; e.g. should bridge users use a second layer of
-entry guards?
-
-\subsection{Implementation: bridge authority}
-
-we run some
-directory authorities with a slightly modified protocol that doesn't leak
-the entire list of bridges. Thus users can learn up-to-date information
-for bridges they already know about, but they can't learn about arbitrary
-new bridges.
-
-we need a design for distributing the bridge authority over more than one
-server
-
-\subsection{Normalizing the Tor protocol on the wire}
-Additionally, we should {\bf resist content-based filters}.  Though an
-adversary can't see what users are saying, some aspects of our protocol are
-easy to fingerprint {\em as} Tor.  We should correct this where possible.
-
-Look like Firefox; or look like nothing?
-Future research: investigate timing similarities with other protocols.
-
-\subsection{Research: scanning-resistance}
-
-\subsection{Research/Design/Impl: how users discover bridges}
-Our design anticipates an arms race between discovery methods and censors.
-We need to begin the infrastructure on our side quickly, preferably in a
-flexible language like Python, so we can adapt quickly to censorship.
-
-phase one: personal bridges
-phase two: families of personal bridges
-phase three: more structured social network
-phase four: bag of tricks
-Research: phase five...
-
-Integration with Psiphon, etc?
-
-\subsection{Document best practices for users}
-Document best practices for various activities common among
-blocked users (e.g. WordPress use).
-
-\subsection{Research: how to know if a bridge has been blocked?}
-
-\subsection{GeoIP maintenance, and "private" user statistics}
-How to know if the whole idea is working?
-
-\subsection{Research: hiding whether the user is reading or publishing?}
-
-\subsection{Research: how many bridges do you need to know to maintain
-reachability?}
-
-\subsection{Resisting censorship of the Tor website, docs, and mirrors}
-
-We should take some effort to consider {\bf initial distribution of Tor and
-  related information} in countries where the Tor website and mirrors are
-censored.  (Right now, most countries that block access to Tor block only the
-main website and leave mirrors and the network itself untouched.)  Falling
-back on word-of-mouth is always a good last resort, but we should also take
-steps to make sure it's relatively easy for users to get ahold of a copy.
-
-\section{Security}
-
-\subsection{Security research projects}
-
-We should investigate approaches with some promise to help Tor resist
-end-to-end traffic correlation attacks.  It's an open research question
-whether (and to what extent) {\bf mixed-latency} networks, {\bf low-volume
-  long-distance padding}, or other approaches can resist these attacks, which
-are currently some of the most effective against careful Tor users.  We
-should research these questions and perform simulations to identify
-opportunities for strengthening our design without dropping performance to
-unacceptable levels. %Cite something
-\plan{Start doing this in 2007; write a paper.  8-16 weeks.}
-
-We've got some preliminary results suggesting that {\bf a topology-aware
-  routing algorithm}~\cite{feamster:wpes2004} could reduce Tor users'
-vulnerability against local or ISP-level adversaries, by ensuring that they
-are never in a position to watch both ends of a connection.  We need to
-examine the effects of this approach in more detail and consider side-effects
-on anonymity against other kinds of adversaries.  If the approach still looks
-promising, we should investigate ways for clients to implement it (or an
-approximation of it) without having to download routing tables for the whole
-Internet. \plan{Not in 2007 unless a graduate student wants to do it.}
-
-%\tmp{defenses against end-to-end correlation}  We don't expect any to work
-%right now, but it would be useful to learn that one did.  Alternatively,
-%proving that one didn't would free up researchers in the field to go work on
-%other things.
-%
-% See above; I think I got this.
-
-We should research the efficacy of {\bf website fingerprinting} attacks,
-wherein an adversary tries to match the distinctive traffic and timing
-pattern of the resources constituting a given website to the traffic pattern
-of a user's client.  These attacks work great in simulations, but in
-practice we hear they don't work nearly as well.  We should get some actual
-numbers to investigate the issue, and figure out what's going on.  If we
-resist these attacks, or can improve our design to resist them, we should.
-% add cites
-\plan{Possibly part of end-to-end correlation paper.  Otherwise, not in 2007
-  unless a graduate student is interested.}
-
-\subsection{Implementation security}
-
-We should also {\bf mark RAM that holds key material as non-swappable} so
-that there is no risk of recovering key material from a hard disk
-compromise.  This would require submitting patches upstream to OpenSSL, where
-support for marking memory as sensitive is currently in a very preliminary
-state.\plan{Nice to do, but not in immediate Tor scope.}
-
-There are numerous tools for identifying trouble spots in code (such as
-Coverity or even VS2005's code analysis tool) and we should convince somebody
-to run some of them against the Tor codebase.  Ideally, we could figure out a
-way to get our code checked periodically rather than just once.\plan{Almost
-  no time once we talk somebody into it.}
-
-We should try {\bf protocol fuzzing} to identify errors in our
-implementation.\plan{Not in 2007 unless we find a grad student or
-  undergraduate who wants to try.}
-
-Our guard nodes help prevent an attacker from being able to become a chosen
-client's entry point by having each client choose a few favorite entry points
-as ``guards'' and stick to them.   We should implement a {\bf directory
-  guards} feature to keep adversaries from enumerating Tor users by acting as
-a directory cache.\plan{Do in 2007; 2 weeks.}
-
-\subsection{Detect corrupt exits and other servers}
-With the success of our network, we've attracted servers in many locations,
-operated by many kinds of people.  Unfortunately, some of these locations
-have compromised or defective networks, and some of these people are
-untrustworthy or incompetent.  Our current design relies on authority
-administrators to identify bad nodes and mark them as nonfunctioning.  We
-should {\bf automate the process of identifying malfunctioning nodes} as
-follows:
-
-We should create a generic {\bf feedback mechanism for add-on tools} like
-Mike Perry's ``Snakes on a Tor'' to report failing nodes to authorities.
-\plan{Do in 2006; 1-2 weeks.}
-
-We should write tools to {\bf detect more kinds of innocent node failure},
-such as nodes whose network providers intercept SSL, nodes whose network
-providers censor popular websites, and so on.  We should also try to detect
-{\bf routers that snoop traffic}; we could do this by launching connections
-to throwaway accounts, and seeing which accounts get used.\plan{Do in 2007;
-  ask Mike Perry if he's interested.  4-6 weeks.}
-
-We should add {\bf an efficient way for authorities to mark a set of servers
-  as probably collaborating} though not necessarily otherwise dishonest.
-This happens when an administrator starts multiple routers, but doesn't mark
-them as belonging to the same family.\plan{Do during v2.1 directory protocol
-  redesign; 1-2 weeks to implement.}
-
-To avoid attacks where an adversary claims good performance in order to
-attract traffic, we should {\bf have authorities measure node performance}
-(including stability and bandwidth) themselves, and not simply believe what
-they're told. We also measure stability by tracking MTBF.  Measuring
-bandwidth will be tricky, since it's hard to distinguish between a server with
-low capacity, and a high-capacity server with most of its capacity in
-use. See also Nikita's NDSS 2008 paper.\plan{Do it if we can interest
-a grad student.}
-
-{\bf Operating a directory authority should be easier.}  We rely on authority
-operators to keep the network running well, but right now their job involves
-too much busywork and administrative overhead.  A better interface for them
-to use could free their time to work on exception cases rather than on
-adding named nodes to the network.\plan{Do in 2007; 4-5 weeks.}
-
-\subsection{Protocol security}
-
-In addition to other protocol changes discussed above,
-% And should we move some of them down here? -NM
-we should add {\bf hooks for denial-of-service resistance}; we have some
-preliminary designs, but we shouldn't postpone them until we really need them.
-If somebody tries a DDoS attack against the Tor network, we won't want to
-wait for all the servers and clients to upgrade to a new
-version.\plan{Research project; do this in 2007 if funded.}
-
-\section{Development infrastructure}
-
-\subsection{Build farm}
-We've begun to deploy a cross-platform distributed build farm of hosts
-that build and test the Tor source every time it changes in our development
-repository.
-
-We need to {\bf get more participants}, so that we can test a larger variety
-of platforms.  (Previously, we've only found out when our code had broken on
-obscure platforms when somebody got around to building it.)
-
-We need also to {\bf add our dependencies} to the build farm, so that we can
-ensure that libraries we need (especially libevent) do not stop working on
-any important platform between one release and the next.
-
-\plan{This is ongoing as more buildbots arrive.}
-
-\subsection{Improved testing harness}
-Currently, our {\bf unit tests} cover only about 20\% of the code base.  This
-is uncomfortably low; we should write more and switch to a more flexible
-testing framework.\plan{Ongoing basis, time permitting.}
-
-We should also write flexible {\bf automated single-host deployment tests} so
-we can more easily verify that the current codebase works with the
-network.\plan{Worthwhile in 2007; would save lots of time.  2-4 weeks.}
-
-We should build automated {\bf stress testing} frameworks so we can see which
-realistic loads cause Tor to perform badly, and regularly profile Tor against
-these loads.  This would give us {\it in vitro} performance values to
-supplement our deployment experience.\plan{Worthwhile in 2007; 2-6 weeks.}
-
-We should improve our memory profiling code.\plan{...}
-
-
-\subsection{Centralized build system}
-We currently rely on a separate packager to maintain the packaging system and
-to build Tor on each platform for which we distribute binaries.  Separate
-package maintainers is sensible, but separate package builders has meant
-long turnaround times between source releases and package releases.  We
-should create the necessary infrastructure for us to produce binaries for all
-major packages within an hour or so of source release.\plan{We should
-  brainstorm this at least in 2007.}
-
-\subsection{Improved metrics}
-We need a way to {\bf measure the network's health, capacity, and degree of
-  utilization}.  Our current means for doing this are ad hoc and not
-completely accurate
-
-We need better ways to {\bf tell which countries are users are coming from,
-  and how many there are}.  A good perspective of the network helps us
-allocate resources and identify trouble spots, but our current approaches
-will work less and less well as we make it harder for adversaries to
-enumerate users.  We'll probably want to shift to a smarter, statistical
-approach rather than our current ``count and extrapolate'' method.
-
-\plan{All of this in 2007 if funded; 4-8 weeks}
-
-% \tmp{We'd like to know how much of the network is getting used.}
-% I think this is covered above -NM
-
-\subsection{Controller library}
-We've done lots of design and development on our controller interface, which
-allows UI applications and other tools to interact with Tor.  We could
-encourage the development of more such tools by releasing a {\bf
-  general-purpose controller library}, ideally with API support for several
-popular programming languages.\plan{2006 or 2007; 1-2 weeks.}
-
-\section{User experience}
-
-\subsection{Get blocked less, get blocked less broadly}
-Right now, some services block connections from the Tor network because
-they don't have a better
-way to keep vandals from abusing them than blocking IP addresses associated
-with vandalism.  Our approach so far has been to educate them about better
-solutions that currently exist, but we should also {\bf create better
-solutions for limiting vandalism by anonymous users} like credential and
-blind-signature based implementations, and encourage their use. Other
-promising starting points including writing a patch and explanation for
-Wikipedia, and helping Freenode to document, maintain, and expand its
-current Tor-friendly position.\plan{Do a writeup here in 2007; 1-2 weeks.}
-
-Those who do block Tor users also block overbroadly, sometimes blacklisting
-operators of Tor servers that do not permit exit to their services.  We could
-obviate innocent reasons for doing so by designing a {\bf narrowly-targeted Tor
-  RBL service} so that those who wanted to overblock Tor could no longer
-plead incompetence.\plan{Possibly in 2007 if we decide it's a good idea; 3
-  weeks.}
-
-\subsection{All-in-one bundle}
-We need a well-tested, well-documented bundle of Tor and supporting
-applications configured to use it correctly.  We have an initial
-implementation well under way, but it will need additional work in
-identifying requisite Firefox extensions, identifying security threats,
-improving user experience, and so on.  This will need significantly more work
-before it's ready for a general public release.
-
-\subsection{LiveCD Tor}
-We need a nice bootable livecd containing a minimal OS and a few applications
-configured to use it correctly.  The Anonym.OS project demonstrated that this
-is quite feasible, but their project is not currently maintained.
-
-\subsection{A Tor client in a VM}
-\tmp{a.k.a JanusVM} which is quite related to the firewall-level deployment
-section below. JanusVM is a Linux kernel running in VMWare. It gets an IP
-address from the network, and serves as a DHCP server for its host Windows
-machine. It intercepts all outgoing traffic and redirects it into Privoxy,
-Tor, etc. This Linux-in-Windows approach may help us with scalability in
-the short term, and it may also be a good long-term solution rather than
-accepting all security risks in Windows.
-
-%\subsection{Interface improvements}
-%\tmp{Allow controllers to manipulate server status.}
-% (Why is this in the User Experience section?) -RD
-% I think it's better left to a generic ``make controller iface better'' item.
-
-\subsection{Firewall-level deployment}
-Another useful deployment mode for some users is using {\bf Tor in a firewall
-  configuration}, and directing all their traffic through Tor.  This can be a
-little tricky to set up currently, but it's an effective way to make sure no
-traffic leaves the host un-anonymized.  To achieve this, we need to {\bf
-  improve and port our new TransPort} feature which allows Tor to be used
-without SOCKS support; to {\bf add an anonymizing DNS proxy} feature to Tor;
-and to {\bf construct a recommended set of firewall configurations} to redirect
-traffic to Tor.
-
-This is an area where {\bf deployment via a livecd}, or an installation
-targeted at specialized home routing hardware, could be useful.
-
-\subsection{Assess software and configurations for anonymity risks}
-Right now, users and packagers are more or less on their own when selecting
-Firefox extensions.  We should {\bf assemble a recommended list of browser
-  extensions} through experiment, and include this in the application bundles
-we distribute.
-
-We should also describe {\bf best practices for using Tor with each class of
-  application}. For example, Ethan Zuckerman has written a detailed
-tutorial on how to use Tor, Firefox, GMail, and Wordpress to blog with
-improved safety. There are many other cases on the Internet where anonymity
-would be helpful, and there are a lot of ways to screw up using Tor.
-
-The Foxtor and Torbutton extensions serve similar purposes; we should pick a
-favorite, and merge in the useful features of the other.
-
-%\tmp{clean up our own bundled software:
-%E.g. Merge the good features of Foxtor into Torbutton}
-%
-% What else did you have in mind? -NM
-
-\subsection{Localization}
-Right now, most of our user-facing code is internationalized.  We need to
-internationalize the last few hold-outs (like the Tor expert installer), and get
-more translations for the parts that are already internationalized.
-
-Also, we should look into a {\bf unified translator's solution}.  Currently,
-since different tools have been internationalized using the
-framework-appropriate method, different tools require translators to localize
-them via different interfaces.  Inasmuch as possible, we should make
-translators only need to use a single tool to translate the whole Tor suite.
-
-\section{Support}
-
-It would be nice to set up some {\bf user support infrastructure} and
-{\bf contributor support infrastructure}, especially focusing on server
-operators and on coordinating volunteers.
-
-This includes intuitive and easy ticket systems for bug reports and
-feature suggestions (not just mailing lists with a half dozen people
-and no clear roles for who answers what), but it also includes a more
-personalized and efficient framework for interaction so we keep the
-attention and interest of the contributors, and so we make them feel
-helpful and wanted.
-
-\section{Documentation}
-
-\subsection{Unified documentation scheme}
-
-We need to {\bf inventory our documentation.}  Our documentation so far has
-been mostly produced on an {\it ad hoc} basis, in response to particular
-needs and requests.  We should figure out what documentation we have, which of
-it (if any) should get priority, and whether we can't put it all into a
-single format.
-
-We could {\bf unify the docs} into a single book-like thing.  This will also
-help us identify what sections of the ``book'' are missing.
-
-\subsection{Missing technical documentation}
-
-We should {\bf revise our design paper} to reflect the new decisions and
-research we've made since it was published in 2004.  This will help other
-researchers evaluate and suggest improvements to Tor's current design.
-
-Other projects sometimes implement the client side of our protocol.  We
-encourage this, but we should write {\bf a document about how to avoid
-excessive resource use}, so we don't need to worry that they will do so
-without regard to the effect of their choices on server resources.
-
-\subsection{Missing user documentation}
-
-Our documentation falls into two broad categories: some is `discoursive' and
-explains in detail why users should take certain actions, and other
-documentation is `comprehensive' and describes all of Tor's features.  Right
-now, we have no document that is both deep, readable, and thorough.  We
-should correct this by identifying missing spots in our design.
-
-\bibliographystyle{plain} \bibliography{tor-design}
-
-\end{document}
-

doc/rump-fc04.mgp

@@ -1,175 +0,0 @@
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-%%
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-%nodefault
-%center, size 9, font "thick", back "white", fore "black"
-
-
-
-Tor: 
-%size 8
-Next-generation Onion Routing
-
-
-%size 7
-Roger Dingledine
-Nick Mathewson
-Paul Syverson
-
-%%The Free Haven Project
-%%%font "typewriter", fore "blue"
-%%http://freehaven.net/
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Low-latency anonymity system
-
-%leftfill
-Deployed: 19 nodes, hundreds of users (?)
-
-Many improvements on earlier design
-
-Free software -- available source code
-
-Design is not covered by earlier onion routing
-patent
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Perfect forward secrecy
-
-
-Telescoping circuit
-
-	negotiates keys at each hop
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%%page
-%%
-%%Separation from "protocol cleaning"
-%%
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-No mixing, padding, traffic shaping (yet)
-
-
-Please show us they're worth the usability tradeoff
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%%page
-%%
-%%Many TCP streams can share one circuit
-%%
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Congestion control
-
-
-Simple rate limiting
-
-Plus have to keep internal nodes from overflowing
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Directory servers
-
-
-Approve new servers
-
-Tell clients who's up right now
-
-	plus their keys, location, etc
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Variable exit policies
-
-
-Each server allows different outgoing connections
-
-E.g. no servers allow outgoing mail currently
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-End-to-end integrity checking
-
-
-In previous onion routing, an insider could change
-the text being transmitted:
-
-"dir" => "rm *"
-
-Even an external adversary could do this!
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Rendezvous points
-
-
-allow hidden services
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-Differences / limitations
-
-
-We're TCP-only, not all IP (but we're user-space and very portable)
-
-Not peer-to-peer
-
-No protocol normalization
-
-%%Not unobservable
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-%page
-
-We have working code
-
-
-Plus a design document,
-and a byte-level specification
-
-%size 9
-http://freehaven.net/tor/
-